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Syllabus  of  Lectures 


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International  Conciliation 


VERSI 

OF 

LELAND  STANFORD   JUNIOR   UNIVERSITY 


BY 


David  Starr  Jordan 

AND 

Edward  Benjamin  Krehbiel 


PUBLISHED   BY 

THE  World  peace  foundation 

BOSTON,  191 2 


Syllabus  of  Lectures 


on 


International  Conciliation 


GIVEN   AT 

LELAND  STANFORD   JUNIOR   UNIVERSITY 

BY 

David  Starr  Jordan 

AND 

Edward  Benjamin  Krehbiel 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE  WORLD  PEACE  FOUNDATION 

BOSTON,  191 2 


<^,-^ 

^^;- 


Stanford  University 
Press 


PREFATORY   NOTE 


This  book  was  originally  prepared  as  a  syllabus  for  the  use 
of  the  students  of  Stanford  University  in  attendance  on  Courses 
of  Lectures  on  the  History  of  International  Conciliation,  given 
by  the  authors  in  191 1  and  1912. 

Its  material  was  arranged  solely  with  a  view  to  meeting  the 
needs  of  these  students,  and  no  effort  was  made  to  make  the 
references  exhaustive,  except  for  the  material  contained  in  the 
library  of  the  University. 

About  one  hundred  students,  all  drawn  from  the  upper  classes 
of  the  University,  were  in  attendance  each  year;  and  the  interest 
shown  leads  us  to  believe  that  similar  courses  will  awaken  a 
like  interest  elsewhere.  It  is  believed  that  this  study  gives  a 
better  perspective  to  history,  in  showing  the  world  movement 
from  force  to  law,  and  that  it  promotes  higher  ideals  of  citizen- 
ship, in  showing  the  gradual  unification  of  the  thoughts  and 
interests  of  the  civilized  world. 

At  the  request  of  Mr.  Edwin  D.  Mead,  Secretary  of  the 
World  Peace  Foundation,  this  private  syllabus  is  now  given  to 
the  public  to  serve  such  use  in  University  teaching  or  in  private 
study  as  may  be  made  of  it. 


Stanford  University,  California, 
June  20,  1912. 


D.  S.   J. 

E.  B.  K. 


254517 


SCHEDULE   OF   LECTURES 


PAGE 

I.  Introductory  Lecture 7 

The  History  of  Warfare 

II.  Arms  and  Armor 11 

HI.  Military  Organization  and  Methods     ....  17 

IV.  The  Provisioning  of  Armies 24 

V.  The  Care  of  the  Sick  and  Wounded  in  War    .     .  28 

VI.  The  History  of  Naval  Warfare 33 

VII.  Different  Types  of  War  in  Modern  Times    .     .  38 

The  Evils  of  War 

VIII.  The  Economic  Consequences  of  War    ....  41 

/       IX.  The  World's  War  Equipment  and  Expenditure  45 

X.  The  Public  Debt  of  Nations 49 

XL  Armament  Syndicates  and  War  Scares     ...  56 

XII.  A  War  Scare :  The  United  States  and  Japan    .     .  63 

XIII.  Mortality  and  Morbidity  in  War 66 

XIV.  The  Biology  of  War 68 

XV.  Social  and  Moral  Evils  of  War 72 

The  Remedy  :  Peace,  zvhich  is  to  he  sought 
through  the  extension  of  law,  and 
through  education. 

The  Historical  Background  of  the 
Present  Peace  Movement 

XVI.  The  Restriction  of  Force  through  the  Develop- 
ment of  Law ^75 

XVII.  Law  and  International  Relations yy 

XVIII.  Peace  Advocates  and  Projects  of  the  Past    .     .  81 
XIX.  Laws  Governing  International  Relations  in  Time 

of  Peace 85 

XX.  International  Rules  for  War 87 

XXI.  The  Development  of  International  Arbitration    .  97 

XXII.  Unlimited  Treaties  of  Arbitration 107 

XXIII.  Examples  of  International  Arbitration    .     .     .     .  iii 

The  Beginnings  of  a  World  Legislature 

XXIV.  The  First   Hague   Conference 115 

XXV.  The  Second  Hague  Conference 118 


schedule  of  lectures  5 

The  Beginnings  of  a  World  Judiciary. 

PAGE 

XXVI.  International  Courts 121 

XXVII.  Cases  Determined  and  Pending  in  International 

Courts 125 

The  Case  For  and  Against  War 

XXVIII.  Arguments  Against  Peace 130 

XXIX.  The  Arguments  Against  Peace  Examined     .     .  133 
XXX.  The   Case   for   Peace:   War   in   Literature   and 

History 140 

XXXI.  "The  Great  Illusion" 144 

Conditions  Tending  to  Promote 
International  Amity 

XXXII.  Improvement  of  Transportation  and  Communica- 
tion      147 

XXXIII.  Internationalism 149 

Means  of  Promoting  Peace 

XXXIV.  World  Federation 157 

XXXV.  Means  and  Methods  of  Promoting  Peace    .     .     .     159 

XXXVI.  Education  for  Peace 163 

XXXVII.  Living  Workers  for  Peace 167 

Appendix 169 


SYLLABUS  OF  LECTURES 

ON 

INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


I.     INTRODUCTORY  LECTURE. 

(Jordan) 

Law,  the  expression  of  right. 

Right,  the  best  way  of  doing  things  among  men, — that  which 

makes  for  strength,  happiness  and  life. 
Peace :  the  duration  of  law ;  the  absence  of  violence  in  social  and 
political  relations. 
"La  paix  est  la  duree  du  droit." — (Bourgeois.) 
War,  the  expression  of  "unreasoning  anger." 

Co-ordinated  and  legalized  violence  to  accomplish  political 
ends.     Meaning  of  battle,  riot,  brawl. 
Republic. 

Kingdoms,  homogeneous  groups  headed  by  a  king. 
Empires,   groups   of   kingdoms   more   or   less   completely   ruled 

through  force  by  an  emperor. 
A  nation  a  region  in  which  people  are  at  peace  among  them- 
selves. 
Civil  war,  due  to  failure  of  functions  of  a  nation ;  law-forming 
and  law-enforcing  (cabinets,  parliaments  and  courts). 
The  road  from  absolutism  towards  democracy. 
"The  cement  of  hypocrisy." 

Willingness  to  compromise  and  co-operate,  an  antidote  to 
civil  war. 
International  war,  war  between  recognized  nations. 

Virtually   prohibitive   through   its   gigantic   expense.      Pre- 
vented by  treaties  of  arbitration. 
Imperial  war,  war  of  spoliation,  war  against  weak,  lawless  or 
barbarous  nations. 
By  no  means  over.     "The  Great  Illusion."     The  belief  that 
a  nation  is  enriched  by  conquest  or  by  expansion  of 
jurisdiction  over  unwilling  people.     War  for  the  ex- 
tension of  loans. 


8  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Who  is  to  judge? 

"The  Mirage  of  the  Map,"  the  behef  that  power  or  glory  goes 
with  unprofitable  extensions  of  jurisdiction. 
Primitive  man   always   subject  to   war.     The  life  of  every 
primitive  man  or  woman,  as  of  every  wild  animal,  is 
a  tragedy. 
Progress  never  due  to  war  save  that  war  may  remove  ob- 
stacles, tradition  or  absolutism. 
Barbarians  violent,  but  not  warlike,  because  neighbors  have 
nothing  to  plunder. — (Sumner.) 
War  and  peace  have  existed  from  time  men  wrote  no  history. 
Compromise  and  co-operation,  the  condition  of  national  pros- 
perity. 
Also  the  condition  of  international  peace. 
.     War  may  sometimes  be  inevitable,  it  may  be  righteous,  but 
only  when  no  other  redress  exists. 
It  is  the  business  of  civilization  to  provide  other  means  of 

redress,  other  methods  of  adjusting  differences. 
Co-operation  and  competition,  egoism  and  altruism  are  two 
principles  forever  active  in  organic  life,  always  present 
in  human  history. 
Growth  of  in-groups ;  competition  with  out-groups.    Coales- 
cence of  in-groups  into  tribes  and  nations.     Develop- 
ment of  peace  within  in-groups.     Competition  within 
in-groups  leads  to  feudal  wars.     (Sumner:  War.) 
Extension  of  mutual  help. 
The  growth  of  law.    Primaeval  arbitration. 
Tribal    war ;    feudal    war ;    the   vendetta ;    piratical    war ; 
baronial  war ;  municipal  war ;  religious  war ;  trial  by 
ordeal ;  ordeal  of  war ;  the  duel ;  civil  war ;  interna- 
tional war.    War  as  "God's  great  test  of  the  nations." 
International  war,  the  only  legalized  form  of  wholesale 
killing;  the  only  stronghold  of  "unreasoning  angei 
in  the  councils  of  the  world" ;  a  relic  of  Mediaevalism : 
the  "Holy  Roman  Empire,"  the  ideal  of  one  nation 
and  one  religion. 
Mutual  hatred  and  mutual  distrust  along  the  boundaries 

of  tribes. 
The  old  patriotism  as  tribal  loyalty. 
The  new  patriotism  as  faith  in  humanity. 

Commerce,    science,    common    interests    of   men    are 
wider  than  the  borders :  missions,  international- 
ism, "La  vie  Internationale." 
Peace,  as  agreement  among  politicians. 


INTRODUCTORY   LECTURE  9 

Peace  of  exhaustion. 

Peace  of  bankruptcy  armed  to  the  teeth.     "The  beggar 

crouching  by  the  barracl<-door." — (Gambetta.) 
Peace  of  mutual  respect  and  mutual  understanding. 

"The  old  peace  with  velvet-sandaled  feet." — (Noguchi.) 
Peace  of  the  English-speaking  countries.     The  Canadian 
border  the  best  illustration  of  international  peace. 
War    as    an    impostor.      Courage,    self-restraint,    magnanimity, 
daring  are  not  caused  by  war,  but  shown  against  its  lurid 
background.       Brave    men    chosen    as    soldiers ;    being 
fighters   does   not  make  men  brave.     Every  war  shows 
cowardice,  murder,  arson,  graft  and  leaves  a  trail  of  per- 
sonal and  national  demoralization. 
War  as  illegal.     "Inter  arma  leges  silent."     Law  and  truth  are 
silent  when  war  is  on. 
The   righteous   cause  no  guarantee  of  success   at  arms. 
"God  on  the  side  of  strong  battalions." 
War  as  immoral.     That  killing  is  made  legal  by  war  does  not 
change  its  nature. 

"Ef  you  take  a  sword  an'  dror  it, 
An'  go  stick  a  feller  thru, 
Guv'ment  aint  to  answer  for  it, 

God'll  send  the  bill  to  you."— (Lowell.) 

War  as  a  counter-irritant  to  democracy. 
"Gild  the  dome  of  the  Invalides." 

War  for  glory,  for  territory,  for  plunder.     Gain  through 
war  no  longer  possible. — "The  Great  Illusion." 
War  as  costly. 

(Consult  the  tables  in  the  appendix  for  the  public  debt  of 
nations  about  1910.) 
The  French  cartoons : 

The  farmer  and  the  marquis. 
The  farmer,  the  soldier,  and  the  money-lender. 
War  as  a  business  contrasted  with  war  for  plunder. 

The  Unseen  Empire  of  Finance :  the  houses  of  Roths- 
child, Cassel,  Stern,  Goldschmid,  Pereire,  Giins- 
berg,  Hirsch,  Mendelssohn,  Bischoffsheim,  War- 
schauer,  Warschafski,  Sassoon,  Montefiore,  Fould, 
Wertheimer,  Morgan  and  their  allies  and  succes- 
sors.   "Das  Consortium"  of  bankers. 


10  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

War  as  destructive  of  virility. 

Euthenics  and  eugenics  of  war. 

Reversal  of  selection. 

Breeding  from  inferior  stock  the  primal  cause  of  "the 
drooping  spirit"  of  Europe. 

A  nation  must  be  judged,  not  by  its  military  power,  not 
by  its  art,  its  science,  its  bankers  or  its  universities,  but 
by  the  status  of  its  common  man.  What  are  the  op- 
portunities granted  to  the  men  of  the  rank  and  file? 
In  what  degree  are  these  men  able  to  grasp  these  op- 
portunities? The  effect  of  war  is  to  limit  these  op- 
portunities, and  to  leave  the  common  man  too  weak 
to  grasp  such  as  may  exist. 


HISTORY  OF   WARFARE  ON   LAND  II 


II.     ARMS  AND  ARMOR. 
(Krehbiel) 

A.  The  defeat  of  fellowmen  is  the  fundamental  principle  of  war. 

The  achievement  of  this  result  is  more  important  than  the 

means  by  which  it  is  accomplished. 

The  art  of  war  is  "the  art  of  making  the  best  practical  use 

of  the  means  at  hand  to  the  attainment  of  the  object 

in  view." — (Moltke.) 

Hence  the  killing  of  men  is  fundamentally  involved  in  war. 

This  killing  may  be  engaged  in  with  delight  or  profound 

regret. 
Whatever  the  feeling,  killing  of  men  remains  an  essential 
of  war. 

B.  The  history  of  warfare  is  therefore — 

1.  The  history  of  conflicts  between  men  which  involve  the 

sacrifice  of  human  life.     (Bloodless  conflicts  are  not 
wars  in  the  common  sense  of  the  term.) 

2.  The  history  of  the  competition  between — 

a.  The  means  and  methods  of  killing:  the  development 

in  this  respect  has  all  tended  to  enlarge  the  zone 

of  danger  about  each  soldier,  and  to  intensify  the 

danger  within  that  zone. 

Improvement  of  implements  of  war. 

Organization  of  armies :  multiplying  the  eflfective- 

ness  of  individual  soldiers. 
Improving  means  of  transportation  and  communi- 
cation :  enlarging  sphere  of  action  of  soldier. 
Treatment  of  the  enemy  and  his  property. 
Provisioning  of  armed  forces :  freeing  armies  from 
dependence  on  the    territory    occupied,    making 
them  more  mobile,  and  subjecting  them  to  more 
rigid  discipline. 
h.  The  means  and  methods  of  defense. 
Armor. 

Counter-organization ;  defensive  tactics  and  strategy. 

Fortifications. 

C  The  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded  (and  presently  of  prisoners 

of  war)  belongs  to  the  history  of  warfare,  though  it  came 

in  response  to  humanitarian  opinion  rather  than  from  an 

attempt  to  increase  the  effectiveness  of  armies. 


12  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

D.  Arms  and  armor. 

I.  Shock  weapons,  for  hand-to-hand  conflict,  wielded  by  mus- 
cular force.  Even  the  missile  weapons  of  this  period 
depended  upon  muscular  force.  This  style  of  weapon 
prevailed  until  about  1350  A.  D.  In  this  period  bar- 
barian man  was  about  the  equal  of  the  man  reputed 
to  be  civilized,  as  the  chief  test  was  one  of  individual 
strength  and  prowess. 

a.  Ancient  period. 

(i.)   Eastern  nations. 

(a.)   Offensive  weapons. 

Shock  weapons :  sword,  club,  mace,  lance, 
pike,  axe,  dagger,  curved  sabre,  spear 
(also  missile). 
Missile    weapons:    barbed    javelin,    sling, 

bow  and  arrow,  spear   (also  shock). 
Artillery:  ballista,  catapult,  maginall. 
(&.)   Defensive  armor. 

Shield,  greaves,  helmet,  cuirass  (outside  of 

Greece). 
In   Greece:  belt-band,  tunic,  breast-plate, 
corslet. 
(2.)   Rome. 

(o.)   Offensive  weapons. 

Shock  weapons:  short  sword,  spatha  (long 
sword),     pilum,     dagger,     broadsword, 
thrusting-pole,  lance,  axe. 
Missile:  spear,  javelin,  bow  and  arrow. 
(&.)   Defensive  armor. 

Round  shield,  buckler,  greaves,  chain 
cuirass,  tunic,  scutum,  helmet,  breast- 
plate. 

b.  Mediaeval  period.     (Western  Europe.) 

(i.)  Offensive  weapons.  Not  much  improved  over 
past. 

(a.)  Shock  weapons:  sword,  lance,  axe,  mace, 
leaden  mallet,  long  knives,  pike,  halbert,  two- 
handed  sword. 

(&.)  Missile  weapons:  bow  and  arrow,  long- 
bow, cross-bow,  fronde,  spear,  sling.  Long- 
bow first  used  at  Falkirk,  1289;  Crecy,  1346: 
in  rural  France  until  1630;  in  China  in  i860. 

Artillery :  as  in  earlier  period,  but  less  used. 


HISTORY   OF   WARFARE   ON    LAND  I3 

(2.)   Defensive  armor :  most  highly  developed  of  any 
age. 
(a.)   Early  middle  ages.     Mail  armor  princi- 
pally.   Helmet,  hauberk,  shield,  hood  of  mail, 
leg-bands,  glaives,  surcoat,  breast-plate,  back- 
plate,  greaves,  bainbergs,  etc. 
(b.)   Later  middle  ages.    Plate  armor,  chiefly. 
Martial  courage  in  the  middle  ages. 
2.  Missile  or  projectile  weapons.    About  1350  to  date.     For 
long  range  fighting,  the  projectile  receiving  its  im- 
pulse from  physical  forces. 
Shock  weapons    (sword,   bayonet,   etc.)    still   used,   but 

of  secondary  importance. 
Offensive  weapons.    Much  in  advance  of  defensive  appli- 
ances, which  were  generally  discarded  about  1500 
as  useless. 

a.  Explosives. 

Greek-fire;  Roman  candles.     Name  of  inventor  of 

gunpowder  unknown.    Berthold  Schwartz. 
Gunpowder  used  in  firearms  beginning  ca.  1330. 
Improvements  in  explosives. 

Large  grain  powder.     Pressed  powder. 

Xyloidine,  1835  (Pelouze). 

Gun-cotton,  1845  (Schonbein). 

Nitro-glycerine,   1846   (Sobrero). 

Gun-cotton     improved,      1863      (Nobel),      1865 

(Abel). 
Dynamite,  1865  (Nobel). 
Sprengel  explosives,   1873. 
Blasting  gelatine,   1878   (Nobel). 
Nitro  compounds   (smokeless). 

E.  C.  powder,  1882  (Reid). 

B.  N.  powder,  1886  (Vieille). 

Ballistite,    1888   (Nobel). 

Cordite,  1888. 

German  smokeless  powder. 

Maximite,  1903. 

Imperial  Schultze. 

Snyder  explosive  (1910). 

Lyddite. 

b.  Small  arms. 

Hand  cannon,  made  at  Perugia,  1564. 

Petronel   (poitrine)    1480. 

Arquebus,  1525. 

Musket,  about  1520. 

Pistol  (Pistoia,  about  1500?). 


14  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Rifle,  after   1631. 

Repeating  rifle,  1837. 

Needle-gun,   1827   (Dreyse).  Adopted  bv  Prussia, 

1846. 
Minie  ball,  1849. 
Revolver,  about  1850. 
Breech  loader,  ca.  i860. 
Chassepot,  1866  (France). 
Magazine  rifle,  1860-65. 
Automatic,  adopted  by  the  Danish  army,  1904, 

c.  Field  artillery. 

The  earliest  cannon. 

Used  at  Cambrai,  1338  (?). 
Mortar  guns  invented  about  1430. 
Bombs  invented  about  1500. 

Came  into  general  use  in  17th  century. 
Iron  shot  displaces  stone. 
Petards,  about  1575. 
Artillery  classified   by   Gustavus   Adolphus. 

Mobile  and  immobile. 
Brass  cannon,  about  1635. 
Chain-shot,  1666  (DeWitt). 
Siege  guns :  mortars. 
Howitzer,  invented  about  1750  (  ?). 
Horse  artillery,  ca.  1759,  by  Frederick  the  Great. 
Four  pounders.     Introduced  into   France  by  Gri- 

beauval. 
Carronades,  1779. 
Rockets,  1803  (Congreave). 
Case-shot,  1807. 
Shrapnel,   1808. 
Rifled  cannon,  Prussia,  1870. 
Time  fuses,  France,  1870. 

Percussion  caps  for  large  ordnance,  Germany,  1870. 
Rapid  fire  guns,  1891.     Made  possible  by  mastery 

of  the  recoil. 
Time  shrapnel,  1891. 
Present  day  ordnance :  land  and  naval. 

"Section  built"  guns. 

Wire  wound  guns. 

Automatic  guns. 

d.  Loading. 

Muzzle  loader. 

Breech  loader:  ca,  1540,    Abandoned,    Readopted 
ca,  1700,     Uncommon  until  1865, 


HISTORY  OF   WARFARE  ON   LAND  1 5 

e.  Ignition. 

Match-lock,   1484. 

Wheel-lock,  15 17. 

Flint-lock,   1635. 

Percussion  cap,  1807  (Forsyth),  for  small  arms. 

Needle-gun,  Prussia  ca.  1840. 

Electric,  1891,  used  only  in  naval  ordnance. 
/.  Miscellaneous. 

Silencers. 

Telescopic  sights. 

Range  finders. 

SearchHghts,  electric,  or  light  diffusing  projectiles. 
g.  Improvement  in  accuracy  and  effectiveness. 

Bloch:  Future  of  War,  7-19;  318-330. 


References 
General. 

Jahns:  Geschichte  der  Kriegswissenschaften  (1889). 

Bloch :  Der  Krieg  (1899).    (Engl.  ed.  abridged :  Future  of  War.) 

Leitfaden  der  allgemeinen  Kriegsgeschichte.     Verfasst  im  Auf- 

trage  des  k.  und  k.     Reichs-Kriegs-Ministeriums  (Wien, 

1896). 
Jablonski:  Histoire  de  I'art  militaire  (1895). 
von  der  Goltz:  The  Nation  in  Arms  (1906). 
Dodge:  Great  Captains  Series  (appendices,  and  the  chapters  on 

the  history  of  warfare).     Alexander,   Hannibal,  Caesar, 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  Frederick  the  Great,  Napoleon  ( 1890- 

1907). 
Parmentier:  Album  Historique  (illustrations)    (1900- 1907). 
Machiavel:  The  Art  of  War  (1815). 
Creasy:  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  (1910). 
Harbottle:  Dictionary  of  Battles  (1904). 
Spencer:  Descriptive  Sociology  (1873-81). 
Sumner:  War  {Yale  Review,  October,  1911).    War  and  Other 

Essays,  (1911). 
Haydn:    Dictionary    of    Dates     (1906).       (Consult    "Battles," 

"Sieges,"  "Massacres,"  and  similar  headings.) 
Steinitzer  und  Michel:  Der  Krieg  in  Bildern  (1911), 
(Consult  also  periodicals,  professional  journals,  and  encyclopedias 
under  the  proper  headings.) 

Arms  and  Armor. 

Boutell  (Lacombe)  :  Arms  and  Armour  (1907). 
Meyrick:  Antient  Armour  (1842), 


l6  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Firearms. 

Grosse:  Military  Antiquities  (1801). 

Lloyd  and  Hadcock :  Artillery ;  its  Progress  and  Present  Position 
(1894). 

Greener:  Modern  Breech-loaders  (1871). 

Chesney :  Past  and  Present  State  of  Firearms. 

Schneider:  Die  Artillerie  des  Mittelalters  (1910). 

Bethell:  Modern  Guns  and  Gunnery  (1910). 

Noble:  Artillery  and  Explosives  (1906). 

Azan:  Les  premieres  mitrailleuses,  1342-1725  (1907). 

Kietzell:  Riickblicke  auf  die  Entwickelung  der  deutschen  Artil- 
lerie seit  dem  Jahre  1866  (1906). 

Jacob:  Artillerie  navale  (1909). 

Sawyer:  Firearms  in  American  History,  1600-1800  (1910). 

Blanch:  A  Century  of  Guns  (1909). 

Himmelwright :  Pistol  and  Revolver  (1908). 

Farrow:  American  Small  Arms  (1904). 

Ashdown:  British  and  Foreign  Arms  and  Armour  (1909). 

Foulkes:  Armour  and  Weapons  (1909). 

Greener:  Bibliography  of  Guns  and  Shooting  (1896). 

Greener:  The  Gun  and  its  Development  (1907). 

(Consult  encyclopedias,  and  periodicals  devoted  to  military 
matters.) 

Explosives. 

Guttman:  Manufacture  of  Explosives  (1895). 

Eissler:  Handbook  of  Modern  Explosives  (1890). 

Hake:  Recent  Developments  in  Modern  Explosives  (1893). 

Eissler:  Modern  High  Explosives  (1899). 

Cundill:  Dictionary  of  Explosives. 


HISTORY  OF  WARFARE  ON  LAND  I7 


III.     MILITARY  ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS. 
Offensive  and  Defensive. 

A.  Ancient  period. 

1.  Infantry  predominant. 

2.  Levied  armies  (not  standing  armies). 

3.  Armies  often  of  great  size.     Xerxes  expedition  against 

the  Greeks. 

4.  Soldiers  untrained.     Hence  practically  no  tactics. 

Exception:  Macedonia.     The  Phalanx. 

5.  Little  strategy  possible. 

6.  Treatment  of  the  enemy  and  his  property. 

No  laws  of  war. 

Prisoners   killed   or   enslaved.      Massacres.     The   dead 
mutilated  now  and  then  for  effect. 

7.  Fortifications.    Centers  of  protection,  not  strategic  centers. 

Walled  cities. 

B.  Roman  period. 

1.  Infantry  predominant. 

2.  Standing  armies.     Consisting  of  Romans   first;   and  of 

mercenaries  under  the  later  Empire. 

3.  Armies  of  smaller  size  than  in  the  ancient  period. 

(Consult  Harbottle,  and  Dodge:  Caesar,  Appendix.) 

4.  Soldiers  well  drilled,  and  tactics  and  army  maneuvers  well 

developed.    Caesar. 

5.  Strategical  movements  appreciated  and  executed.    Military 

roads. 

6.  Treatment  of  the  enemy  and  his  possessions  practically  as 

in  the  earlier  period.    Massacres. 

7.  Fortifications.      Protective   and   strategic   centers.     Field 

camps    used.      Walled   towns   and   even   boundaries : 
Hadrian's  Wall ;  "Vallum  Romanum." 
(Chinese  Wall  the  greatest  of  its  kind). 

C.  The  Transition  period,  500-800. 

1.  The  Teutons  had  little  of  organization  or  tactics,  but,  be- 

cause of  their  personal  strength  and  skill  restored  in- 
dividual fighting. 

2.  The  Saracens  introduced  the  use  of  horses  into  western 

warfare.     Battle  of  Tours,  732. 


1 8  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

D.  The  Mediaeval  period,  800-1350.    Western  Europe. 

1.  Cavalry  predominant.     Chivalry. 

2.  Feudal  armies.     Aiding  one's  suzerain  in  war   (usually 

for  a  period  of  no  more  than  forty  days  a  year)  was 
one  of  the  conditions  of  vassalage,  i.  e.,  feudal  armies 
consisted  of  fief  holders  and  their  squires.  This  gave 
the  military  class  a  high  caste,  and  made  fighting  an 
honorable  pursuit.  This  condition  gradually  de- 
veloped a  class  of  knights  whose  vows  bound  them 
always  to  fight  for  the  right  and  to  protect  the  poor 
and  the  weak  (especially  women).  Their  practice 
was,  however,  far  from  their  vows. 

3.  Armies  of  moderate  size.    Depended  on  the  size  of  a  lord's 

fief,  or,  presently,  on  the  number  of  men-at-arms  he 
could  retain.  Crusades.  Few  great  battles  in  the 
middle  ages. 

4.  Knights  well  trained  for  individual  fighting.    Of  organized 

fighting  in  battle  there  was  .a  minimum.     The  tour- 
nament, the  tilt  at  quintain,  etc.,  were  forms  of  military 
training.     Caracolling  and  the  chase. 
Champions :  e.  g.,  at  Hastings. 

5.  Strategy  frowned  upon  as  somewhat  dishonorable.    Open 

battle,  fought  according  to  the  prevailing  code,  was  in 
favor. 

6.  Treatment  of  the  enemy  and  his  property.    Object  of  war 

to  profit,  pay  retainers,  and  incapacitate  the  enemy. 
a.  No  distinction  made  between  combatants  and  non- 
combatants. 
No  restriction  on  brutality.    Laws  of  chivalry  only 

for  knights  and  their  class. 
Massacres. 
h.  Prisoners. 

Ransomed,  if  worth  ransoming;  or  released  for 
a  small  sum  or  without  ransom,  in  case  of  clerics, 
who  were  regarded  as  inviolable. 
Mutilated,  by  cutting  ofif  hands,  or  feet,  by  putting 
out  eyes,  etc.,  in  case  of  serfs,  who  were  regarded 
as  property  and  were  valuable  to  their  master  for 
the  work  they  could  do,  but  were  not  ransomed. 
c.  Property. 

Looted,  wantonly  destroyed  or  ruined.  Buildings 
and  crops  burned.  Incendiaries  a  part  of  mediae- 
val armies.    Cities  and  villages  fired. 

7.  Fortifications  used  as  places  of  retreat.    Were  practically 

impregnable  and  often  yielded  to  starvation  only. 


HISTORY  OF  WARFARE  ON  LAND  I9 

Period  of  mercenary  armies,  1350-1648. 

1.  Infantry  gradually  became  more  important  than  cavalry. 

Turning  point,  Crecy,  1346;  English  yeomen. 

2.  Mercenary  armies. 

a.  With   the   twelfth   century  kings   began   to  support 

armies  consisting  of  soldiers.  (The  word  soldier 
originally  meant  hireling.) 

b.  The  introduction  of  firearms  reduced  the  superiority 

of  the  mounted  soldier  over  the  infantryman. 
It  also  made  fighting  dangerous,  with  the  result  that 
the    knight    of    feudal    days    preferred    to    have 
others  do  the  fighting. 

c.  The  mercenaries  engaged  to  fight  for  a  wage,  and 

expected  to  profit  by  pilfering  and  stealing,  etc., 
in  war.  They  naturally  took  service  with  the 
highest  bidder  regardless  of  the  cause  for  which 
they  undertook  to  fight.  War  was  a  business  with 
them ;  but  disgraceful  as  was  their  ethical  code, 
their  profession  continued  to  be  considered  hon- 
orable, as  had  been  that  of  the  mediaeval  knight. 
The  Swiss  particularly,  became  mercenaries. 

d.  Supplying  mercenaries  became  an  important  function. 

The  rulers  desiring  military  aid  secured  it  for 
themselves  at  first.  In  some  regions  it  was  done 
by  middlemen.  Condottieri  in  Italy :  Hawkwood ; 
Sforza;  Carmagnola;  etc.  Wallenstein  most 
famous  in  Empire. 

3.  Armies  gradually  increase  in  size. 

4.  No  considerable  discipline  or  training  possible  in  mercen- 

ary armies.     However  in  the  case  in  which  the  army 
consisted  of  nationals  (Spain  in  the  sixteenth  century) 
there  was  rigid  discipline  and  a  considerable  develop- 
ment of  tactics  and  army  drill. 
Even  these  mutinied  for  lack  of  pay.    "Spanish  Fury," 

1576. 

5.  This  period  saw  the  development  of  rudimentary  strategy. 

Made  necessary  by  the  fact  that  firearms  required  a 
base  of  supplies  for  ammunition,  etc. 

6.  Treatment  of  the  enemy  and  his  property. 

No  laws  of  war  existed  in  this  period,  except  indeed 
the  agreements  between  chiefs  of  mercenaries 
not  to  carry  conflicts  to  the  point  of  extermina- 
tion, as  that  would  deprive  them  of  occupation. 

No    restriction  on  the  treatment  of  the  foe,    whether 
combatant  or  not.     Prisoners  the  property  of  the 
captor,  who  sought  ransom  money  for  them. 
Massacres. 


20  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Pilfering  and  wanton  destruction  of  enemy's  property 

the  rule. 
Black  Prince  in  France,  1355-6. 
"Free  companies"  after  1356. 
Sack  of  Rome,  1527. 
Thirty  Years  War,   1618-48,  marks  the  height  of 

wanton  destruction.  . 
Population  of  Germany  reduced  about  60  per  cent, 

16  to  6  millions.     In  some  parts  only  one-tenth 

remained. 
7.  Fortifications  begin  to  be  centers  of  military  action. 

F.  Standing  armies,  1648  to  date.     Armies  retained  in  time  of 
peace. 

1.  Infantry  continues  to  be  the  chief  strength  of  armies. 

Cavalry  and  artillery  retained  and  increased. 
Baggage  train,   engineer,   signal,  medical  and  hospital 
corps   added- 

2.  Standing  armies,  retained  in  time  of  peace,  become  the  rule. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  introduced  the  system.     His  army 
consisted  of  paid  nationals.     This  was  in  a  way 
a  consequence  of  the  intense  national  spirit  which 
resulted  from  the  religious  wars  of  the  fifteenth 
and  early  sixteenth  centuries ;  it  also  indicates  the 
reaction  of  Europe  against  the  excesses  of  mer- 
cenary warfare  as  shown  by  the  Thirty  Years 
War. 
System  rapidly  adopted  elsewhere. 
Hiring  troops  still  practiced  occasionally. 
Hessians  in  the  American  Revolution. 
Armies  consisted  of — 
Volunteers. 
Conscripts. 

Conscription    introduced   by   Louis   XIV.    Be- 
came the  means  everywhere  of  bringing 
the  army  to  the  desired  numbers,  if  there 
were  not  enough  volunteers. 
Frederick  William  I.  of  Prussia  and  his 

regiment  of  giants,  "Potsdam  guard." 
Conscription  under  Napoleon.    Boys  levied 
when  men  gave  out. 
Conscription  and  volunteering  gave  way  to — 
Compulsory  and  universal  service. 

Introduced   by   Prussia   during  the   period   of 
Napoleonic  wars,  about  1809. 


HISTORY  OF  WARFARE  ON  LAND  21 

All  young  men  expected  to  serve  for  a  short 
time  with  the  colors;  and  for  another 
period  with  the  reserve.  The  whole 
male  population  trained  to  fight. 

System  gradually  adopted  by  the  continental 
powers  of  Europe. 

England  and  the  United  States  have  not  adopt- 
ed it.  They  depend  on  a  regular  army 
and  a  reserve  or  militia.  A  considerable 
movement  toward  compulsory  service  is 
afoot  in  England  and  her  possessions. 

3.  Armies  steadily  increase  in  size  during  this  period.    Com- 

pulsory universal  service  operates  to  increase  armies 
automatically  with  the  increase  in  population.  (Bo- 
dart,  p.  777-800.) 

4.  Training  and  drill  of  soldiers  steadily  improved  during 

this  period.    Discipline  becomes  rigid. 
Louvois  in  France  under  Louis  XIV. 

5.  Maneuvers  and  strategy  become  highly  important,  because 

of  growing  size  of  armies  with  the  corresponding  in- 
crease in  the  ammunition  train,  the  adoption  of  a  sys- 
tem of  provisioning  armies  and  the  supply  train  made 
necessary  thereby,  and  because  of  the  greater  effective- 
ness of  firearms.  Base  of  supplies. 
Long  and  rapid  marches  or  campaigns  begun. 

Marlborough;  the  Blenheim  campaign. 

Frederick  the  Great. 

Napoleon. 
Railways  introduce  new  possibilities  and  problems. 

6.  Treatment  of  the  foe  and  his  property.     The  horrors  of 

the  Thirty  Years  War  brought  about  great  improve- 
ment in  this  direction. 

a.  Distinction  between  combatants  and  non-combatants 

steadily  gained  ground. 

b.  Prisoners.     It  became  the  rule  to  consider  prisoners 

of  war  the  property  of  the  victorious  party,  in- 
stead of  the  individual  captor. 
Estimated  that  there  were  6,000  English  prisoners 
in  France,  and  27,000  French  prisoners  in 
England  in  1798. 
English  in  France  10,300,  French  in  England 
47,600  in  181 1. 
Civil  War. 

Franco-Prussian  War.    374,995  French  prisoners  in 
Germany. 


22  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Maltreatment  of  prisoners  decreased. 

Massacre  by  Napoleon  at  Jaffa,  1798. 
Exchange  of  prisoners  became  a  practice. 
Rules  adopted  at  Geneva  Convention  and  later 
(Lecture  XX). 
c.  Property. 

Provisioning  of  armies  reduced  pilfering  and  wanton 

destruction  by  individual  soldiers. 
Destruction  of  property  remained  a  part  of  legiti- 
mate warfare. 
Devastation  of  the  Palatinate  by  Louis  XIV, 

1688.    "Brulenda  est  Palatina." 
Castle    at    Heidelberg;     Speyer,    Mannheim, 

Worms. 
Napoleon   and  the  art  treasures   of  the  van- 
quished. 
Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea,  1864. 
Destruction   of  property,   unless   necessary  by  the 
exigencies  of  war,  is  illegal.     (See  Lecture 
XX.) 
Violated  in  the  Boxer  War,  1900. 
7.  Fortifications.     Strong  centers  serving  to  dominate  stra- 
tegic points. 
Vauban  under  Louis  XIV. 
Steady  development  to  meet  changes  in  armament  and 

military  methods. 
Mines.     Barbed  wire. 
G.  Scientific  warfare.     Preparation  for  war  and  every  possible 
contingency  of  conflict  in  time  of  peace.    "The  armed 
peace." 

1.  System  developed  by  Prussia.    Moltke  and  Roon. 

Prussians  in  Austro-Prussian  war,  1866. 
Germans  in  Franco-Prussian  war,  1870-71. 
Japanese  in  Russo-Japanese  war,  1905. 

2.  Aircraft  in  war. 


history  of  warfare  on  land  23 

References 
Ancient  Warfare. 
Phillipson :  International  Law  and  Custom  of  Ancient  Greece  and 

Rome,  II,  166-348. 
Whibley:  Companion  to  Greek  Studies,  Ch.  VI,  Pt.  lo  (1905). 
Holmes:  Caesar's  Conquest  of  Gaul  (1899). 
Grosser  Military  Antiquities. 

Mediaeval  Warfare. 
Lea:  Wager  of  Battle  (1892). 
Oman:  Art  of  War  in  the  Middle  Ages  (1885). 
Lacroix :  Military  and  Religious  Life. 
Gautier:  Chivalry  (1891). 

MacMillan's  Mag.  72,  171 :  Soldier  of  the  Sixteenth  Century. 
Luchaire:  Social  France  (1912),  Chapter  VIII. 

Modern  Warfare. 
Bodart:  Militar-historisches  Kriegs-Lexikon,  1618-1905   (1908). 
Derrecagaix :  Modern  Warfare,  3  vols.,  1888. 
Hamley:  The  Operations  of  War  Explained. 
Palat:  Bibliographic  generale  de  la  guerre  de  1 870-1 871   (1896). 
Kramer:  Geschichte  der  Entwickelung  des  russischen  Heeres. 
Dunant:  Un  souvenir  de  Solferino  (1862). 
Maude:  Cavalry,  Its  Past  and  Future  (1903). 
Maude:  Evolution  of  Modern  Strategy  (1904). 
Maude:  Evolution  of  Infantry  Tactics  (1908). 
Bloch:  Der  Krieg  (1899),  I,  481   f. 

(Consult   encyclopedias,   the  bibliographies   in   the  works  men- 
tioned above,  and  the  history  of  any  given  war.) 

Conscription. 
Hamilton,  Sir  I.:  Compulsory  Service  (1910). 
Roberts:  Fallacies  and  Facts  (1911),     (Answer  to  the  above). 
For  additional  references  see  Peace  Year-Book,  191 1,  p.  183-4. 

Fortifications. 
Viollet-le-Duc :  Annals  of  a  Fortress  (1876). 
Clark,  G.  T. :  Mediaeval  Military  Architecture  in  England  (1884). 
Bloch:  Der  Krieg,  (1899),  II,  221-285. 

Aircraft. 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Reports,  (1908),  1 17-159. 


24  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


IV.    THE  PROVISIONING  OF  ARMIES. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Down  to  the  period  of  the  Thirty  Years  War,  little  or  no 
system  of  provisioning  armies. 
War  supports  war,  armies  live  on  the  enemy's  country  if 

possible,  if  not,  they  live  on  their  own. 
I.  Requirements   of  the   ancients   were   less   than   those   of 
moderns,  especially  in  meats. 
a.  The  oriental  nations  had  no  supply  system. 
h.  The  Greeks,  and  especially  the  Romans,  developed  a 
system. 
Roman    soldiers    carried    supplies   for  about    two 
weeks,  to  be  used  when  the  country  afforded  no 
provisions.    No  baggage  trains  or  wagons. 

c.  Middle  ages.     Predatory  warfare  continued. 

Armed  forces  took  not  only  what  they  needed  but 
all  they  wanted ;  and  destroyed  much  of  the  rest. 

In  the  Third  Crusade  (1189-90)  only  persons  who 
had  at  least  three  silver  marks  were  allowed  to 
go,  because  the  first  crusade  had  shown  that  an 
unprovisioned  expedition  could  not  succeed.  This 
was  not  provisioning  an  army,  as  each  crusader 
was  still  left  to  find  his  own  sustenance. 

d.  Early  modern  period.    Mercenary  armies. 

War  a  trade  or  profession  (not  without  honor). 

The  hirelings  in  the  trade  engaged  in  it  expecting 
to  profit  by  their  wage,  and  by  what  they  could 
loot. 

Each  mercenary  was  expected  to  find  his  living.  No 
provision,  except  establishing  a  market  in  the 
vicinity  of  a  camp,  was  made  to  facilitate  this  pro- 
cess. The  mercenary  who  stole  his  supplies,  kept 
his  wage.  Therefore,  his  profits  generally  depend- 
ed upon  the  thoroughness  with  which  he  robbed 
the  country  in  which  he  was ;  whether  it  was  foe 
or  friend  mattered  little  to  him ;  he  was  in  war 
for  profit,  not  for  any  particular  cause. 


HISTORY  OF  WARFARE  ON  LAND  2$ 

B.  Since  the  Thirty  Years  War.    Providing  armies  with  supplies 
gradually  introduced. 

1.  Circumstances  producing  the  change  to  the  new  system. 

Reaction  against  the  excesses  of  the  Thirty  Years  War. 

Use  of  firearms  necessitated  a  base  of  supplies  anyway. 

Maintaining  armies  in  times  of  peace  made  some  system 
of  provisioning  necessary  for  such  times;  and  it 
proved  advantageous  to  retain  it  during  war. 

Provisioning  armies  made  rapid  campaigns  possible. 

2.  Introduced  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  about  1630. 

His  armies  still  lived  on  the  enemy,  but  the  individual 
soldier  was  relieved  of  the  necessity  of  finding  his 
own  provisions.  This  function  was  intrusted  to 
foraging  divisions,  which  were  expected  to  take 
no  more  than  necessary  for  the  needs  of  the  army 
and  to  keep  the  magazine  stocked. 

He  also  introduced  the  magazine  system ;  a  base  of 
supplies  kept  about  five  days'  march  in  the  rear 
of  the  army  and  stocked  from  the  land. 

3.  Development  of  the  system. 

Magazine  system  perfected  in  time  of  peace. 

Became  the  rule  to  purchase  all  supplies  for  armies. 

Foraging  allowed,  even  in  war,  only  as  a  last  resort. 
This  rule  could  not,  however,  be  enforced  strictly, 
despite  the  penalties  of  flogging  or  hanging  fixed 
for  violations. 

Supplying  the  army  became  centralized  under  the  minis- 
try of  Louvois  in  France  (1666-91). 

Frederick  the  Great  adopted  the  mobile  magazine.     He 
requisitioned  the  means  of  conveyance  to  aid  the 
regular  baggage  train. 
His_  method  of  supplying  his  army  was  the  secret  of 
his  brilliant  campaigns. 

Relying  on  the  magazines,  and  sparing  the  people,  be- 
carne  so  firmly  fixed  that  the  Prussians  starved  in 
their  own  country  in  the  midst  of  plenty  (1806- 
10).     Bloch,  IV,  376. 

4.  The  modern  system.    Requisition  and  contribution. 

a.  Introduced  in  the  Revolutionary  wars. 

Dumouriez  institutes   requisitions   in  the  Austrian 

Netherlands.    Opposed  by  the  Convention  at  first. 
All  private  property  in  France  declared  subject  to 

requisition,  Aug.  27  and  Sept.  7,  1793.     (Bloch 

IV,  379.) 


26  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

b.  Napoleon's  method  of  supplying  his  army. 

"Getrennt  marschieren,  vereint  schlagen." 
(i)  Swift  descent  into  the  arena  of  conflict  by  as 
many  different  roads  as  feasible,  the  army  re- 
quisitioning along  its  march  the  supplies 
necessary  to  it,  and  enough  others  to  tide 
over  the  period  of  concentration  and  battle. 
(2)  Period  of  concentration  and  battle,  during 
which  the  army  lived  on — 

(a)  The  locality  in  which  it  was  by  requisi- 
tions. 

(b)  Supplies  collected  along  the  line  of  ad- 
vance. 

(c)  Supplies  coming  from  the  magazines  at 
home  (the  base  of  supplies).  Napoleon  re- 
lied on  the  last  of  the^e  as  little  as  possible. 

Napoleon's  method  of  requisitioning  was  calculated 
to  be  as  effective  with  as  little  friction  as 
possible. 

He  assigned  distinct  officers  to  the  task. 

He  associated  with  these  the  leading  men  of  the 
community  to  be  subjected  to  requisition. 
These  men  were  held  responsible. 

The  soldiers  were  kept  out  of  touch  with  the 
people  subjected  to  requisition.  The  sup- 
plies were  brought  by  the  people  to  a  place 
indicated  beforehand ;  there  they  were  taken 
in  charge  by  officers  of  Napoleon. 

Maurauding  was  punished. 

Whatever  was  needed  was  requisitioned :  pro- 
visions, labor,  money,  treasure,  works  of 
art. 

(See  Bloch  IV,  381  for  requisitions  in  Prus- 
sia.) 
The  failure  of  the  Russian  campaign  was  chiefly  the 
fault  of  the  collapse  of  the  method  of  pro- 
visioning the  French  army.  Russia  more 
sparsely  populated  than  the  western  nations, 
and  Napoleon  could  not  secure  the  required 
supplies. 

c.  Return  to  the  system  of  cash  payments  and  convoys 

after  Napoleonic  wars  (especially  in  Austria). 
Napoleonic  system  gradually  readopted. 
Railroads  change  the  problem  of  supplying  armies. 


HISTORY  OF  WARFARE  ON  LAND  27 

d.  Prussian    system    (which  is  that»of  Napoleon    with 

slight  modifications)  used  in  1870  is  now  the  rule. 
Scientific  warfare  has  been  applied  to  the  matter 
of  provisioning.  The  capacity  of  the  several  parts 
of  Europe  to  sustain  armies  is  calculated  with 
great  care.     (Bloch:  IV,  481,  489.) 

e.  The  conventions  for  land  warfare  have  placed  various 

limitations  on  requisitioning  and  seizing  private 
property.     (See  Lecture  XX.) 
On  the  sea  private  property  still  remains  subject 
to  capture  by  the  enemy.     (It  should  be  made 
immune. ) 

References 
Bloch:  Der  Krieg,  (1899)  IV,  369-476. 
Consult  also  encyclopedias. 


28  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


V.    THE  CARE  OF  THE  SICK  AND  WOUNDED  IN  WAR. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Practically  no  arrangements  for  caring  for  the  sick  and  wound- 

ed in  the  wars  of  ancient  or  mediaeval  or  early  modern  per- 
iods. 
In  the  middle  ages  the  knights  extended  the  aid  required  by 
their   code.     Clerics   often   accompanied   armies   and 
rendered  such  assistance  as  they  could.     They  were 
regarded  as  combatants,  subject  to  ransom. 
Each  knight  had  his  squire  who  was  expected  to  care 

for   him. 
Mercenaries   relied   on   self-help   and   such   mercy   and 
sympathy  as  they  might  expect  from  fellow-mer- 
cenaries. 
Sully  established  the  first  military  hospital,   1594.     Austria 
did  so  about  the  same  time. 
No  provision  was  made  for  attending  men  during  the 
course  of  battle. 

B.  Modern  times. 

I.  The  introduction  of  organized  means  of  caring  for  the 
victims  of  battle  and  campaign. 

a.  Larrey  (later  Napoleon's  chief  surgeon)  introduced 

"flying  ambulances."  Gave  primary  aid  to  the 
wounded,  and  removed  them  from  the  sphere  of 
action   (but  not  during  battle). 

b.  Percy  (Frenchman)   organized  the  stretcher-bearers 

(about   1793). 
Collected  the  wounded  during  battle.     They  were 
regarded  as  combatants. 

c.  Napoleon's  disregard  for  his  men  during  his  western 

wars ;  only  in  his  Russian  campaign  did  he  show 
concern  for  their  welfare. 
The  typhoid  epidemic  in  the  French  Army,  1813. 

d.  Development  of  the  military  establishments  and  meth- 

ods of  caring  for  the  sick  and  wounded.  This 
process  was  the  result  of  humane  public  opinion 
rather  than  of  a  feeUng  that  the  eflfectiveness  of 
the  army  would  be  increased.  Inadequacy  shown 
by  Crimean  War. 


HISTORY  OF  WARFARE  ON  LAND  29 

2.  Private  enterprise  to  the  rescue. 

a.  The  tragedy  of  the  Crimean  War,  1854-56. 

Hunger,  typhoid  in  the  armies  (no  forage  obtain- 
able). 

One  third  of  French  succumb  to  disease. 

Public  opinion  aroused  in  England;  fall  of  the  Aber- 
deen ministry,  1855. 

Private  organizations  come  to  the  rescue  of  the  suf- 
ferers in  the  Crimea.  Florence  Nightingale,  (d. 
1911). 

The  effect  of  this  example  on  later  wars. 

b.  Italian  War,  1859. 

Henry  Dunant  at  Solferino,  1859. 

Dunant's  experiences  related  in  "Un  souvenir  de 
Solferino."  This  book  contributed  very  largely 
to  the  results  of  the  Geneva  Convention. 

c.  Civil  War  in  the  United  States. 

Francis  Lieber  Code,  1863.    Scott:  Texts,  350-376. 
Many  private   relief   societies,   estimated   at  about 

7000. 
Provided  hospitals  and  nurses;  also  hospital  trains 

and  hospital  ships. 
Effectiveness  shown  at  Gettysburg,  where  by  the 

morning  of  July  4  all  the  sufferers  of  the  three 

days'  battle,  July  1-3,  were  cared  for. 

d.  Private  enterprise  culminates  in  the  Red  Cross  So- 

cieties. 

3.  The  Geneva  Convention  for  the  Amelioration  of  the  Con- 

dition of  the  Sick  and  Wounded  of  Armies  in  the 
Field,  1864.     (Scott:  Texts,  376-378.) 

a.  Influence  of  Dunant  and  of  Moynier,  President  of  the 

Society  of  Public  Utility  of  Geneva,  in  bringing 
about  the  convention. 

b.  First  meeting,  1863.    Sixteen  nations  represented. 

c.  Meeting  of  1864.     Same  nations  represented. 
Provisions  adopted  (10  articles). 

(i)  Ambulances  and  military  hospitals  neutral  as 
long  as  sick  or  wounded  may  be  therein,  ana 
they  are  not  held  by  a  military  force. 

(2)  All  persons  employed  in  connection  with  am- 
bulances or  hospitals  shall  have  the  benefit  of 
neutrality,  whilst  so  employed,  and  so  long  as 
there  remain  wounded  to  be  aided. 

(3)  These  persons  may,  even  after  occup,i.tion  by 
the  enemy,  continue  to  fulfill  their  duties  with 
their  ambulances  or  hospitals,  or  may  rejoin  the 
corps  to  which  they  belong.  To  be  aided,  not 
hindered,  in  doing  so. 


30  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

(4)  Equipment  of  military  hospitals  subject  to  the 
laws  of  war  and  cannot  be  carried  away  by  above 
persons  when  withdrawing.  Ambulances,  under 
the  same  conditions,  retain  their  equipment. 

(5)  Inhabitants  of  the  country  may  aid  the  wound- 
ed, without  being  considered  belligerents.  They 
are  to  be  encouraged  in  every  way  to  aid  the 
wounded. 

(6)  The  sick  and  wounded  are  to  be  cared  for  in- 
discriminately. Those  who  recover  may  be 
paroled. 

(7)  Ambulances,  hospitals  and  persons  attached  to 
them  have  a  distinctive  flag  (or  light  at  night), 
which  must  in  every  case  be  accompanied  by  the 
national  flag;  and  an  arm  badge  is  given  to  neu- 
tralized persons,  to  be  delivered  by  the  proper 
military  authorities. 

The  badge  is  to  be  a  red  cross  in  a  white  field. 
(Turkey    gave    notice  in  1876,  that    her    badge 
would  be  a  red  crescent.) 
(8-10).  Ratifications,  etc. 

d.  Practically  all  nations  have  accepted  the  convention. 

e.  Diplomatic  conference  of  Geneva,  1868,  proposed  to 

extend  the  above  rules  to  naval  warfare ;  proposal 
was  not  ratified  then.    This  step  was  taken  at  the 
First  Hague  Conference,  1899. 
4.  Red  Cross  Societies   (private  organizations). 

a.  Made  possible  by  the  Geneva  Convention.     Each  na- 

tion to  authorize  one  civic  society  to  send  medical 
aid  to  war. 

b.  In  Germany  and  France  the  Red  Cross  Society  is 

placed  under  military  control,  no  independent  vol- 
unteer service  being  permitted  in  the  field. 
In  England  and  the  United  States  the  Red  Cross 
organizations  are  independent,  but  co-operate 
with  the  military  organizations  for  the  aid  of  the 
wounded. 

c.  American  National  Red  Cross  Society  founded  1881. 

Clara  Barton,  first  president  (d.  1912). 
Extended   its    relief   program   to   other   calamities 
besides  wars,  and  has  rendered  great  service  in 
various  directions. 

d.  The  several  national  Red  Cross  Societies  hold  inter- 

national congresses  at  intervals.     (For  a  list  of 
these    see    Annuaire    de    la   Vie    Internationale, 
1908-9,  p.  885.) 
The  Society  of  Geneva  is  regarded  as  a  central  com- 
mittee. 


HISTORY  OF  WARFARE  ON  LAND  31 

e.  Problems  of  the  Red  Cross. 

Abuse  of  the  flag :  it  has  been  used  by  unauthorized 
persons,  sometimes  out  of  ignorance,  supposing 
that  it  guaranteed  immunity,  sometimes  deliber- 
ately to  escape  the  fate  of  war. 
The  Red  Cross  in  civil  war.     The  convention  per- 
mitting the  Red  Cross  gave  the  society  the  right 
to  perform  its   functions,  under  certain  restric- 
tions, in  international  wars,  but  failed  (by  over- 
sight) to  grant  it  the  same  right  in  case  of  civil 
war.     This  will  undoubtedly  be  remedied. 
5.  All  nations  now  have  well  developed  and  organized  med- 
ical staffs  and  hospital  corps  attached  to  armies.    What 
it  is  possible  for  these  branches  of  the  army  to  achieve 
was  demonstrated  by  the  Japanese  in  the  Russo-Jap- 
anese War.  See  Seaman :  The  Real  Triumph  of  Japan. 


References 

Myrdacz:  Handbuch  fiir  k.  und  k.  Militarartzte   (1898-1905). 

(Volume  II  is  a  history  of  sanitation  in  the  European  wars 

of  the  nineteenth  century.) 
Longmore:  Gunshot  Injuries    (1895). 
Bloch:  Der  Krieg  (1899),  V,  481-563. 
France:  Bulletin  officiel  du  Ministere  de  la  Guerre.    Service  de 

sante  (1903). 
Siittner:  Ground  Arms!  (1899). 
Seaman:  The  Real  Triumph  of  Japan  (1906). 
Semenoff:  The  Price  of  Blood  (1910). 
Sakurai:  Human  Bullets  (1908). 

The  Red  Cross  Society. 
Barton:  A  Story  of  the  Red  Cross  (1904). 
Barton:  History  of  the  Red  Cross  (1883). 
Barton:  History  of  the  Red  Cross  in  Peace  and  War  (1898). 
Dunant :  The  Origin  of  the  Red  Cross. 
Moynier:  fitude  sur  la  convention  Geneve  (1870). 
Moynier:  La  Croix-Rouge,  son  passe  et  son  avenir  (1882). 
The  Red  Cross  of  the  Geneva  Convention.    What  it  is.  Its  Origin 

and  History  (1881). 
Lueder:  Die  Genfer  Convention  (1876). 
Lueder:  La  convention  de  Geneve  au  point  de  vue  historique, 

critique  et  dogmatique  (1877). 
Criegen:  Das  Rothe  Kreuz  in  Deutschland  (1883). 
Dunant:  Un  souvenir  de  Solferino  (1862). 


32  lectures  on  international  conciliation 

General  Conclusions 

1.  Formerly  war  was  waged  between  whole  peoples;  now 
a  distinction  is  made  between  combatants  and  non-combatants 
and  the  latter  are  spared  as  much  as  possible. 

2.  War  formerly  meant  personal  antipathy  between  the 
.combatants ;  now  it  is  more  nearly  a  conflict  between  interests. 

3.  Victory  formerly  meant  subjection  for  the  conquered; 
now  the  conquered  often  retains  his  independence.  (See  Lecture 
XVI.) 

4.  Formerly  war  was  waged  with  little  or  no  preparation, 
or  strategy;  it  has  gradually  been  reduced  to  a  science  which 
requires  experts  in  all  departments. 

5.  Formerly  individual  prowess  counted,  and  a  skillful 
fighter  stood  some  chance  in  battle ;  now  the  leaders  of  the  army 
are  expected  to  have  the  prowess,  and  the  private  ordinarily  is 
expected  to  do  nothing  more  than  obey  orders  (which  is  contrary 
to  the  spirit  of  democracy)  ;  and  under  fire  the  keen  and  wide- 
awake soldier  has  little  more  chance  to  escape  death  than  the 
sluggard  (except  perhaps  in  retreat). 

".  .  .  the  soldier  knew 

Some  one  had  blunder'd: 
Their's  not  to  make  reply, 
Their's  not  to  reason  why, 
Their's  but  to  do  and  die." 

— Tennyson. 

6.  Plundering  and  wanton  destruction  of  property,  which 
were  formerly  the  rule,  are  now  discouraged. 

7.  War  has  grown  more  humane. 

8.  War  has  grown  very  much  more  expensive  than  it  was. 

9.  War  was  formerly  decided  upon  by  the  rulers  and  they, 
if  anybody,  were  the  beneficiaries;  their  subjects  who  fought 
risked  life  and  gained  little  except  by  plunder.  Today  the  people 
as  a  whole  have  a  voice  in  deciding  upon  war  but  get  little  out 
of  fighting  except  the  satisfaction  of  being  victors.  Others  get 
the  prizes.  The  realization  of  this  and  the  enlargement  of  the 
power  of  the  people  militates  against  war. 


HISTORY   OF    NAVAL   WARFARE  33 


VI.    HISTORY  OF  NAVAL  WARFARE. 
(Krehbiel) 

Wooden  ships. 

1.  Galleys,  propelled  by  oars,  used  in  ancient  and  mediaeval 

times.     Bireme,  trireme,  quinquireme. 

a.  Armament  practically  the  same  as  for  land  warfare. 

Javelins,  spears,  bows  and  arrows,  grappling  poles 
and  irons,  stone  hurlers,  combustibles  (Greek 
fire),  rams. 

b.  Armor  and  protective  devices. 

Awnings  of  hides,  braces  to  withstand  ramming, 
moveable  walls  and  turrets,  girdling  cables. 

c.  Personnel. 

Galleys  usually  manned  by  slaves  and  convicts.  Even 
in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV  sentencing  men  to  the 
galleys  was  in  vogue ;  to  supply  the  needed  men, 
Louis  XIV  instructed  his  judges  to  sentence  vaga- 
bonds to  the  galleys. 

Many  Christians  in  bondage  in  Turkish  galleys. 

Galley  slaves  treated  with  utmost  cruelty. 

d.  Tactics. 

Galleys  drawn  up  in  two  or  three  lines  or  in  a  single 
line  in  the  form  of  a  crescent  with  the  horns  fac- 
ing the  enemy. 

In  attack  it  was  considered  desirable  to  have  both 
wind  and  sun  behind  the  attacking  force. 

Galleys  sought  to  ram  their  opponents. 

When  galleys  came  into  collision,  hand-to-hand  con- 
flict settled  the  issue  just  as  on  land. 

This  type  of  tactics  remained  practically  unchanged 
to  the  Battle  of  Lepanto,  1571. 

e.  Galleys  gradually  became  larger.     Toward  the  close 

of  the  middle  ages  Venice  was  the  leading  mari- 
time power ;  other  states  in  need  of  galleys  rented 
from  her. 

2.  Sailing  vessels,  dependent  on  the  wind. 

a.  Vessels  relying  on  the  wind  rather  than  on  propulsion 
by  oars,  appeared  in  the  fourteenth  century.  For 
a  long  time  ships  retained  oars  along  with  sails. 


34  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

b.  Increased  in  size  over  the  galleys. 

Sea-going  (made  possible  by  the  compass)  made 
larger  ships  desirable. 

The  introduction  of  artillery  for  ships  made  larger 
ships  necessary.  Mortars  used  first.  With  the 
adoption  of  cannon,  gun-ports  were  introduced. 

c.  Distinction  between  merchant-  and  war-ships  began 

during  the  sixteenth  century. 

Governments  were  slow  to  acquire  fleets.  At  the 
time  of  the  Armada,  1588,  England  possessed 
about  half  a  dozen  vessels ;  the  others  were  hired. 

Ship  of  the  line. 

Frigate   (originally  meant  a  fast  sailing  merchant 
vessel). 
Carried  sixty  guns  by  1600 ;  this  number  stead- 
ily grew. 

Classification  of  fighting  craft  began  in  England 
about  1650. 

Russian  fleet  begun  under  Peter  the  Great. 

Rivalry  of  the  English  and  French  upon  the  sea  dur- 
ing the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  cul- 
minated at  the  time  of  Napoleon  in  the  Battle  of 
Trafalgar,  1805,  (Nelson)  and  the  triumph  of 
England. 

d.  Tactics. 

Little  development  in  the  way  of  tactics  for  two  cen- 
turies after  the  Battle  of  Lepanto.  Ramming 
abandoned. 

The  "Invincible  Armada,"  1588. 

The  Dutch  made  the  first  attempts  at  formation  in 
naval  battle:  line  formation,  front  attack. 

About  1700  maneuvering  to  gain  the  wind  of  the  ad- 
versary, and  to  attack  in  order  in  line  ahead  for- 
mation began  to  be  important. 

By  1775  the  English  had  abandoned  the  front  attack. 
Using  a  feint  to  draw  aside  a  part  of  the  opposing 
fleet,  they  fell  upon  the  line  of  the  foe  with 
superior  force,  and  defeated  his  vessels  in  time  to 
deal  with  the  ships  which  had  allowed  themselves 
to  be  drawn  aside. 

The  French  and  other  navies  adhered  to  the  old 
methods. 

Bar-shot  and  cutlasses  used  to  injure  the  enemy's 
rigging ;  red-hot  shot,  to  set  him  afire ;  boarding 
tactics  as  of  old. 


HISTORY   OF    NAVAL   WARFARE  35 

Rules  governing  the  treatment  of  the  enemy  were 

unknown. 
Notable   naval   engagements    (besides   those   men- 
tioned above). 
"Bonhomme  Richard"  versus  "Serapis"  (John 
Paul  Jones)  1779.    One  of  the  longest  battles 
between  single  vessels  on  record. 
Battle  of  Aboukir  Bay,   (Nelson),  1798. 
"Constitution"  versus  "Guerriere,"  1812. 
Battle  of  Navarino,  1827. 
3.  Steam  ships,  dependent  on  coal  or  fuel  supply. 
a.  Side-wheel. 

Fulton's  "Clermont,"  1807. 

Steam  propulsion  hesitatingly  adopted  by  navies  be- 
fore 1840. 
h.  Screw  propulsion. 

First  tried  in  a  warship  by  the  United  States,  in  the 

"Princeton,"  1840. 
Speed  attained  made  the  venture  a  success. 
Rapidly  adopted  by  English  and  French  navies. 
The  superiority  of  the  English  and  French  vessels 
over  the  Russian  in  the  Crimean  War,   1854-6, 
marked  the  passing  of  the  sailing  vessel  for  naval 
purposes. 
B.  Armored  and  steel  vessels. 

1.  First  attempts  at  armoring  said  to  have  been  made  at 
Antwerp  in  preparation  to  resist  the  Armada. 

Armored  floating  batteries,  used  by  the  English  and 
French  in  the  Crimean  War,  proved  the  utility  of 
armored  devices  and  gave  an  impetus  to  armoring 
ships. 

2.  Napoleon  III,  in  1858,  ordered  the  construction  of  the 
"Gloire,"  the  first  armored  vessel.  The  exposed  parts 
of  a  frigate  were  covered  with  iron  plates. 

3.  England  immediately  improved  on  the  plan  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  "Warrior."  The  whole  vessel  was  of  iron, 
the  exposed  parts  being  armored.  Water-tight  bulk- 
heads introduced. 

4.  The  first  engagement  between  ironclads  was  that  of  the 
"Monitor"  and  "Merrimac,"  1863.  This  battle  num- 
bered the  days  of  wooden  vessels. 

5.  Battle  of  Lissa  (Austria  versus  Italy),  1866,  demonstrated 
the  utility  of  rams  in  steam  vessels. 

6.  Battles  of  Manila  Bay  and  Santiago,   1898. 

7.  Battle  of  Tsu  Shima  Straits,  1905.  Demonstrated  the 
superiority  of  long-range  guns  in  naval  warfare  and 
gave  the  impulse  to  the  building  of  dreadnoughts. 


36  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

8.  Laws  of  warfare  on  the  sea. 

a.  In  this  period  the  agitation  for  the  adoption  of  rules 

governing  conflicts  at  sea  was  partially  success- 
ful in  the  Hague  Conferences.  (See  Lecture 
XX.) 

b.  Agreements   respecting  property,   especially  of  neu- 

trals, at  sea  during  war  were  accepted.     These 
agreements  do  not,  however,  grant  property  the 
same  immunity  that  it  possesses  on  land. 
C.  Present  situation. 

1.  The  rivalry  continues  between — 

a.  Armament  and  size  of  vessels. 

Each  nation  has  its  peculiarities,  but  in  general  all 
follow  the  prevailing  fashion.  At  present  the 
fashion  is  toward  ever-growing  dreadnoughts 
(all-large-gun  vessels),  each  of  which  has  a 
greater  tonnage — and  in  consequence,  a  greater 
cost — than  its  predecessors. 

b.  Armor,  of  which  there  are  various  makes. 

2.  Notable  appliances  and  experiments. 

Torpedoes  and  torpedo  boats.     First  experiments,  1775. 

Practical  use  began  about  1863. 
Electric  mines.     First  tried  about  1861. 
Search  lights,  since  i860. 
Coaling  at  sea.     First  tests  made  in  1890. 
Submarines.      Recent   experiments   at   governing  then? 

from  land  by  electricity. 
Turbine  engines  first  used  in  vessels  in  1897. 
Internal  combustion  engines. 
Oil  burners. 
Torpedo  nets. 


I 


HISTORY   OF   NAVAL   WARFARE  37 


References 


Stenzel:  Seekriegsgeschichte  (1907-11). 

Bloch:  Der  Krieg,   (1899),  III. 

Colomb:  The  History  of  Naval  Warfare  (1895). 

Werner:  Der  Seekrieg. 

Mahan:  Influence  of  Sea  Power  upon  History  (1894). 

Burchett:  Complete  Naval  History. 

Mahan:  Interest  of  America  in  Sea  Power  (1898). 

Mahan:  Lessons  of  the  War  with  Spain  (1899). 

Jane:  Imperial  Russian  Navy. 

Tane:  All  the  World's  Fighting  Ships  (since  1898). 

Mahan:   Influence  of   Sea  Power  upon  the  French  Revolution 

(1905). 
Klado:  The  Russian  Navy  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War  (1905). 
Clark,  Stevens,  Alden,  Krafft:  A  Short  History  of  the  United 

'  States  Navy  (1911)- 
v.  Maltzahn:  Naval  Warfare. 
Pilidi:  Du  combustible  en  temps  de  guerre  (1910).     (Coaling  in 

time  of  war.) 
Bridge:  Sea  Power  and  Other  Studies. 
Hannay:  Ships  and  men.  , 
Silburn:  The  Evolution  of  Sea  Power. 
Mahan:  Naval  Strategy  (1911)- 
Fulton :  The  Sovereignty  of  the  Sea. 
Hamersly:  Naval  Encyclopedia  (1881). 
Brassey:  Naval  Annual. 
Navy  League  Annual. 
Maclay :  History  of  the  Navy. 
Robinson:  The  British  Fleet  (1894). 
Wilmot :  The  Development  of  Navies. 
M^Iqy :  History  of  the  Navy. 


38  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


VII.  DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  WAR  IN  MODERN  TIMES. 

(Jordan) 

A.  Civil  war:  war  within  the  boundaries  of  a  nation. 

1.  Caused   usually   by   tyranny,   lawlessness,    ignorance,    or 

misunderstandings,  i.  e.,  by  the  failure  of  the  nation  to 
perform  its  normal  functions.  Brigandage.  Balkan 
States. 

a.  In  a  well-governed  nation  courts  replace  violence ;  in 

an  ill-governed  nation  the  courts  may  be  set  aside 
or  made  instruments  of  tyranny  or  plunder. 

b.  In  a  well-governed,  and  especially  in  a  self-governed 

nation  violence  is  in  the  nature  of  treason ;  in 
an  ill-governed  nation  violence  has  meant  pat- 
riotism, the  last  resort  of  "murdered,  mangled 
liberty." 

c.  Democracy  provides  machinery  to  settle  all  questions 

between  man  and  man. 
The  public,  being  the  chief  sufferer,  has  the  right 

and  duty  to  enforce  the  peace. 
No  cause  under  democracy  is  important  enough  tc 

justify  violence  in  its  behalf,  as  justice  can  be  won 

without  violence,  not  by  it. 
"The  force  of  arms  must  be  kept  far  from  matters 

of  the  Gospel." — (Luther.) 
"To  keep  unreasoning  anger  out  of  the  councils  of 

the  world." 

2.  Inevitable  when  people  suffer   from  injustice  or  when 

people  fail  to  enforce  order. 
Revolt   against   absolutism    and   the    squeeze   process : 
China,  Mexico,  Persia,  France,  labor-riots,  tax- 
riots,  bread-riots. 

3.  Examples  of  civil  war. 

o.  American  Revolution :  "taxation  without  representa- 
tion." 

b.  French   Revolution:   taxation   without   limit;   "I'etat 

c'est  moi." 

c.  Civil  war  in  United  States :  state  rights  and  slavery. 

d.  Boxer  war:  invasion  of  foreigners,  revenge  of  Eu- 

rope. 


DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  WAR  IN   MODERN  TIMES  39 

e.  Mexican  insurrection :  contempt  of  courts  and  consti- 
tution ;  farcical  elections. 
/.  Revolutions  in  Spanish  America :  ambitious  usurpers. 
g.  Class  wars :  labor  against  capital. 
h.  Dynastic  wars :  pretenders. 
i.  Agrarian  riots:  Champagne;  L'Ouest  railways, 
y.  Race  riots:  lynching  in  the  southern  states. 
k.  Picketing,    boycotting,    and    other    petty    warfare. 
France,  Sweden,  New  Zealand,  Canada. 
B.  International  war:  war  between  organized  nations. 

Passing,  on  account  of  burden  of  debt,  cost  of  armament,  re- 
fusal of  laboring  men  to  fight,  opposition  of  commerce, 
prohibition  by  high  finance,  growing  intelligence  of 
people   and   growing  respect   for  other  nations   and 
races.    Impossibility  of  feeding  or  controlling  an  army 
against  modern  weapons. 
C  Imperial  wars:  wars  for  subjection  or  extirpation  of  weaker 
races. 
A  republic :  a  self-governed  state,  with  elective  executive. 
A  kingdom :  a  homogeneous  people  having  a  common  titular 

head,  the  king. 
An  empire :  a  group  of  different  peoples  united  by  force  or  by 
agreement,   under  a  common  titular  head,  the   em- 
peror. 
Instability  of  empire. 

Imperial  wars,  those  for  the  extension  of  control  over  alien 
districts. 
For  exploitation.     China,    Persia,    Tripoli.      Peaceful 
occupation  and  loans  to  repay  expenses.     Dollar 
diplomacy. 
For  bringing  order  out  of  chaos.     Cuba,  Korea,   Mo- 
rocco. 
For    assimilation.      Korea,    Finland,    Alsace-Lorraine, 
Schleswig,  Holstein. 
Benefits  of  imperial  domination. 
Evils  of  imperial  domination. 
On  the  ruling  nation. 
On  the  people  ruled. 
Cost  of  imperial  domination. 
Jealousies  of  imperialism. 
Relation  of  navies  to  imperiaUsm. 

Government  of  colonies  in  interest  of  resident  people. 
Government  by  "brassbound  and  hidebound  militarism 

as  though  colonies  were  enemies'  camps." 
Alleged  duty  of  strong  nations  to  keep  order.     "Pax 
Britannica." 


40  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Alleged    duty    of    strong    nations    to    extirpate    weak 

peoples :  "Social  Darwinism." 
"Let  him  who  falls  in  the  press  lie  there  and  be  trampled 
broad." 
Does  right  and  wrong  exist  in  international  affairs? 
Is  a  deed  of  violence  by  a  nation  justified  by  the  advantages 

it  brings  to  some  or  all  of  those  who  suffer  by  it? 
Does  the  growth  of  California  justify  the  war  on  Mexico? 
Do  the  needs  of  Japan  justify  the  occupation  of  Korea? 
What  are  the  ethics  of  imperialism? 
What  are  the  economics  of  imperialism? 


ECONOMIC  CONSEQUENCES  OF  WAR  4I 


VIII.    ECONOMIC  CONSEQUENCES  OF  WAR. 
(Krehbiel) 

A.  Destruction  of  property. 

1.  Formerly  an  essential  part  of  war:  war  must  support 

war. 

2.  The  tendency  of  law-making  has  been  to  make  property 

immune  from  warfare  as  far  as  possible.     (See  Lec- 
ture XX.) 

B.  Disturbance  of  economic  conditions.    War  is  pathological,  as 

it  produces  an  abnormal  economic  condition. 
Preparation  for  war  in  time  of  peace  has  tended  to  make 
the  disturbance  at  the  outbreak  of  war  less  violent. 
Advance    information    about    war.      (See    article   by 
Childe  in  Harper's  Weekly.) 

1.  Interruption  of  business  at  many  points    (not  only  be- 

tween foes). 

2.  Withdrawal  of  large  numbers  of  men  from  their  regular 

pursuits    in    factories,   offices,   and   on    farms;    draft 
animals  needed  for  war  purposes. 

3.  Rise  in  prices  and  wages.     (Wages  do  not  rise  in  concert 

with  prices.    Dewey:  Financial  History  of  U.  S.  294.) 

4.  Change  in  demand:  war  goods  wanted. 

5.  Rise  in  insurance  rates  (both  for  goods  on  land  and  sea). 

C.  The  cost  of  wars.     (Mass.  Commission  on  the  Cost  of  Living: 

The  Waste  of  Militarism,  p.  7.)     (See  table  on  page  43.) 

D.  Financial  consequences. 

War  means  enormous  expense  to  a  government. 
Credit  of  the  government  immediately  sinks ;  its  paper 
(bonds  and  paper  money)  fall  in  value.  (See  plates 
in  Journal  de  la  Societe  de  Statistique  de  Paris,  1909.) 
Specie  (especially  gold)  is  forced  out  of  circulation ;  hoarded. 
Runs  on  banks  are  to  be  feared. 
Banks    (perchance  the  government)    may  be  compelled  to 

suspend  specie  payment. 
Loans  recalled ;  interest  high ;  bankruptcy  to  be  feared. 
Financing  the  war,     (Based  on  the  Civil  War.) 

The  government  issues  bonds.     These  must  be  of  a 
character  to  induce  moneyed  interests  to  buy. 
Must  bear  high  rate  of  interest   (preferably  pay- 
able in  gold). 
Must  perhaps  be  put  on  sale  at  a  discount. 
Must  offer  suitable  terms  of  conversion  or  redemp- 
tion. 


42  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

(The  patriotism  and  courage  of  purchasers  of  such 

bonds.) 
Issuing  bonds  means  indebtedness. 
Customs  and  excise  duties.    War  tariffs. 

Duties  on   imports  payable  in  coin    (often  gold). 
Why? 
Taxes  increased.    But  not  too  much,  as  people  must  not 

feel  the  burden  of  war  too  directly. 
Fiat  money.     Non-interest  bearing  paper.     Greenbacks. 
(Assignats  in  France.)     Debt  in  another  form. 
Redeemable : 

Not  too  soon,  or  the  government  cannot  meet  its 

obligations. 
Not  too  late,  or  the  paper  will  depreciate. 
Legal  tender. 

If  not  made  a  legal  tender,  it  will  fail  of  its  pur- 
pose. 
If  made  a  legal  tender  and  received  for  customs 
and  taxes,  the  government  will  get  no  coin. 
Hence  legal  tender  except  for  certain  payments  to 
'y  the  government;  which  causes  depreciation. 

-•  For  depreciation  in  Civil  War:  Dewey,  293. 

E.  Recovery  from  the  war. 

Resumption  of  normal  economic  life.    Danger  of  booms  or 

inflation. 
Disbandment  of  armies. 
War  debt  to  be  repaid.      (Do  financial  interests  want  the 

governments  to  get  out  of  debt?) 
The  rehabilitation  of  the  war  equipment. 
Results  of  the  acquisition  or  loss  of  territory.    (Lecture  XV.) 
Results  of  the  payment  of  indemnities  on   conqueror  and 

conquered.     France  and  Germany,  1870- 1880. 
Pensions. 
Repudiation  of  war  debts  (sometimes). 

References 
Gfellender:  Effect  of  War  on  the  Price  of  Commodities,  Banker's 

Journal  22,  415-47- 
Bloch:  Der  Erieg  (1899),  I,  3-308;  358-64.:  IV,  3-308;  343-64 
Richet:  Passe  dc  la  guerre  (1907),  61.  ; 

Molinari :  Grandeur  et  decadence  de  la  guerre  (1898),  228 ;  237-9. 
Mass.  Commission  on  the  Cost  of  Living:  Waste  of  Militarisni. 

(Pamphlet,  World  Peace  Foundation,  1910.) 
Jones :  Commerce  and  War.  ;. 

Anitchkow:  War  and  Labor  (1900). 
Journal  de  la  Societe  de  Statistique  de  Paris,  1909,  314-49. 
Denifle:  Desolation  des  Eglises  (1897-99). 
Dewey:  Financial  History  of  the  United  States  (1907). 


ECONOMIC  CONSEQUENCES  OF  WAR 


43 


Rauchberg:  Die  Bevolkerung-  Oesterreichs  (1895).    (Plate  p.  27, 

shows  wages  and  prices  in  Austria.) 
Giffen:  Economic  Inquiries  and  Studies  (1904).     Chap.  I,  Cost 

of  the  Franco-Prussian  War;  Chap.  XXI,  Consols  in  a 

Great  War;  Chap.  XXII,  Economic  Aspects  of  the  South 

African  War. 
Phillipson:   The   Effect  of  War  on  Contracts  and  on  Trading 

Associations  in  Territories  of  Belligerents  (1909). 
Latifi:  Effects  9f  War  on  Property  (1909). 
Wells :  Cost  of  the  [American  Civil]  War.    Payment  of  the  War 

Debt.    In  Rand:  Economic  History  since  1763,  pp.  520-24. 
(For  additional  references  see  Lectures  IX  and  X.) 

THE  COST  OF  WARS. 


Dates 


1793-1815 
1812-1815 
1828  .... 
1 830- 1 840 
I 830- I 847 
1848  .... 
1845  •  •  •  • 


r 
1854-1856.  i 


I 


1859 


1861-1865. 

1864 

1866 

1 864- 1 870. 

I 865- I 866. 
I 870- I 87 I. 

I 876- I 877. 
1898  . . . . . 


1900-1901, 
1 904- 1 905, 


Countries  Engaged 


England  and  France , 

France  and  Russia 

Russia  and  Turkey , 

Spain  and  Portugal  (civil  war) . , 

France  and  Algeria 

Revolts  in  Europe 

United  States  and  Mexico 

England    

France  

Sardinia  and  Turkey  

Austria . 

Russia   

France  

Austria    

Italy 

The  rebellion  •  •  •  ■ 

Denmark,  Prussia,  and  Austria. . 

Prussia  and  Austria 

Brazil,  Argentine,  and  Paraguay 

France  and  Mexico  '. 

Germany  .....>.. 

France  

Russia  

Turkey 

Spain  and  the  United  States 

Transvaal  Republic  and  England 
Russia  and  Japan. 


Cost 


$6,250,000,000 
450,625,000 
100,000,000 
250,000,000 
190,000,000 
50,000,000 

371,000,000 

332,000,000 

128,000,000 

68,600,000 

800,000,000 

75,000,000 

127,000,000 

51,000,000 

5,000,000,000 

36,000,000 

330,000,000 

240,000,000 

65,000,000 

954,400,006 

1,580,000,000 

806,547,489 

403,273,745 

1,165,000,000 

1,000,100,000 

2,500,000,000 


Expense  of  wars,  1793- 1860. 

Expense  of  wars,  1861-1910. 

Total   


?  9,243,225,000 
.14,080,321,240 
>23,323>546,240 


44  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


IX.     THE  WORLD'S  WAR  EQUIPMENT  AND  EXPEN- 
DITURE. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  In  men. 

I.  Land  Forces,  classified.     (Sundbarg) 

a.  Officers   227,537 

b.  Infantry    2,651,625 

c.  Cavalry   491,967 

d.  Artillery   601,350 

Total  classified 3,972,479 

e.  Colonial  (Great  Br.,  Portu- 

gal, Netherl.) 281,026 

f.  Miscellaneous 1,345,698 

Total  unclassified 1,626,724 

Grand  total,  peace  standing  5>599.203 

i..  In  the  navies.     (Sundbarg)  46  nations 422,737 

(World   Almanac,    191 2,    580,   gives   the 

figure  at  488,378  men  for  22  navies.)      

Guardians  of  the  world's  peace 6,021,940 

3.  War  footing  (not  including  U.  S.).     (World 

Almanac,  1912,  580) 20,228,100 

U.  S.  organized  militia   (World  Almanac, 

1912,  649)   121,803 

Total  war-standing 20,349,903 

B.  In  draft  animals,  etc.    Horses    (Sundbarg) 741,656 

C.  In  military  and  naval  stations. 

Fortifications :  their  distribution  illustrated. 

Barracks,  drill-grounds,  arsenals,  proving  grounds,  gun  and 

ammunition  factories  and  depots. 
National  cemeteries. 
Navy  yards,  ship  yards,  docks,  coaling  stations,  etc. 

For  details  about  the  U.  S.,  Heitman:  Historical  Regis- 
ter, II. 

D.  Vessels.    All  types  (Sundbarg)  2848. 

Situation  of  naval  powers  in  March,  1912,  according  to  Navy 
League  Annual,  1911-1912,  p.  267.     (See  table.) 


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46  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

E.  Air  craft. 

1.  Types. 

a.  Lighter-than-air :  balloons  and  dirigibles. 
Rigid :  Zeppelin. 
Semi-rigid:     Gross     (German);     La     Republique 

(French). 
Non-rigid:    Perseval    (German);    Ville    de    Paris 
(French). 
h.  Heavier-than-air :  aeroplanes  (various  makes). 

2.  Performances. 

3.  Military  uses :  dropping  explosives  forbidden  for  a  limited 

period.     (Hague.) 

4.  Number  of  air  craft  used  by  armies  not  ascertainable. 

F.  Miscellaneous  war  materials. 

Uniforms,  utensils,  repairs,  stores,  hospital  equipment,  en- 
gineering  outfits,   telegraphic   appliances,   etc. 
Large  guns  on  land,  20,904;  on  ships,  21,207  (Sundbarg). 

G.  War  implements  rapidly  depreciate  in  value. 

1.  Every  bit  of  progress  in  science  and  invention  tends  to  put 

the  existing  equipment  out  of  date. 

2.  Under  the  present  system  armaments  must  be  up  to  date; 

old  implements  are  about  as  good  as  none. 

3.  Keeping  armaments  up  with  improvements  costs  money; 

the  more  there  is  of  inventive  genius,  the  greater  the 
cost. 
H.  The  cost  of  maintaining  armaments,  and  the  results. 

1.  Nations   have   enormous   military   budgets.      (Appendix, 

Table  B  and  Allen:  Drain  of  Armaments,  Table  IL) 

a.  The  cost  per  individual  soldier    (Allen,   Table  IIL 

Also   Mulhall:   Statistics,  "Army"). 

b.  The  military   charge  per   individual   citizen    (Allen, 

Table  IV). 

2.  The  military  expenditures  of  nations  are  out  of  propor- 

tion to  the  civil  expenditures.     (Allen,  Table  V  and 
Appendix  C.) 
a.  The    Philippine    Islands,    Canada,    and    Korea   have 
the  burden  of  defense  borne  by  others  and  enjoy 
the  advantage  of  using  practically  all  revenues 
for  civil  purposes. 
h.  Belgium    and    Switzerland,    being    neutralized,    can 
limit  their  military  expenditures. 

3.  Military  expenditures  have  steadily  increased  as  a  conse- 

quence of  competition  for  military  and  naval  suprem- 
acy.    (Allen,  Tables  VI-VIII.) 


:  world's  war  equipment  and  expenditure  47 

a.  The  relative  position  of  competing  nations  remains 

i  about  the  same ;  a  proportional  reduction  of  arma- 

i  ments  would  operate  just  the  same  way,  but  would 

I  be  economical. 

\l.  Results. 

\.  I.  Public  debts. 

1  a.  The  history  of  national  debts  (Lecture  X). 

[  h.  National  debts  and  interest  charges  are  steadily  grow- 

1  ing.      (Appendix,   Table   A,   and   Allen,   Tables 

1  IX-XI.) 

[  c.  Public  credit  is  weakened,  as  appears  from  the  prices 

j  commanded  by  government  bonds. 

I  2.  High  cost  of  living. 

i  3.  Socialism. 

jj  References 

For  statistics  consult:  Statesman's  Year  Book,  Hazell's  Annual, 
Mulhall,  Webo,  Almanach  de  Gotha,  United  States  Re- 
ports. 

Sundbarg:  Apergus  Statistiques  Internationaux,  1908,  p.  165,  166. 

Jerram:  Armies  of  the  World  (1900). 

Bloch:  Der  Krieg  (1899),  II,  497-751.     IV,  289. 

Johnson :  Expansion  of  Military  Expenditures,  (Pamphlet, 
Am.  Assoc,  for  Intern.  Conciliation.) 

Office  of  Naval  Intelligence  (U.  S.)  ;  Coaling,  Docking,  and 
Repairing  Facilities  of  the  Ports  of  the  World. 

War  Dept.  General  Staff,  191 1,  No.  17.  Strength  and  Organi- 
zation of  the  Armies  of  Germany,  Austria,  Russia,  Eng- 
land, Italy,  Mexico,  and  Japan. 

British  Sessional  Papers,  1906  (148),  LXVII,  469.  Military 
Expenditure,  British  and  Foreign. 

British  Sessional  Papers,  1909,  LIII  (251).  Naval  Expenditure 
of  the  Principal  Powers. 

Navy  League  Annual    (1911-12):   Principal   Navies  Compared. 

World  Almanac  (1912),  p.  649. 

Hirst:  The  National  Expenditure  of  the  United  Kingdom.  In 
The  Economist,  191 1. 

McClellan:   American  Naval  Expenditures.     Atlantic  Monthly, 
January,  191 1. 
.  .  .  .    :  Les  armees  des  principales  puissances  au  printemps  de 
191 1  (Paris,  1911). 

Call :  Military  Reservations  of  the  U.  S.     (Govt.  Printing  Office.) 

Bartholomew:  Atlas  of  the  World's  Commerce.     Map  26-27. 

Heitman:  Historical  Register  (1903),  II,  475-559. 

Philips:  Mercantile  Marine  Atlas  (1905). 


48  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

Smithsonian  Institution,  Reports  (1908),  1 17-159  (Aeronautics). 

Bloch:  Future  of  War  (1902),  63-92,  128-139. 

Cobden  Club:  The  Burden  of  Armament  (1905), 

Tawney:  Cost  of  Armed  Peace.     Congr.  Record,  46,  Part  IV, 

p.  3077. 
Griffiths :  Great  Armies  and  Their  Cost,  Fortn.  75 :  249-59. 
Dymond :  War.    Appendix, 
Peace  Year-Book,  191 1,  42-48. 
Berkeley:  The  Cost  of  230,000  Fighting  Men.     Westm.  Rev. 

155:  117-125. 
Perris:  Hands  Across  the  Sea,  p.  10.     (Pamphlet.) 
Messimy:  La  paix  armee.     La  France  peut  en  alleger  le  poids 

(1903)- 
British  Sessional  Papers :  Memorandum  of  Army  Estimates,  1911- 

1912,  Cd.  5480. 
Ibid :  Memorandum  of  Navy  Estimates  and  Statement  of  the  First 

Lord  of  the  Admiralty  on  Navy  Estimates,  1911-1912,  Cd. 

5547- 
Ibid:  Parliamentary  Paper  No.  61,  Navy  Estimates,  1911-12. 
Ibid:  Parliamentary  Paper  No.  53,  Army  Estimates,  1911-12. 
Ibid:  Naval  Expenditures  of  Foreign  Powers,  Cd.  269,  p.  60. 

Cf.  p.  208. 
Whitaker's  Almanack,  1910,  p.  690-691 ;  1912,  p.  759.     (Export 

of  British  capital.) 
Army  and  Navy  Gazette,  September  30,  191 1.    "Cost  of  War." 
Allen:  The  Drain  of  Armaments  (Pamphlet  issued  by  the  ^Vorld 

Peace  Foundation,  191 2,  and  distributed  free  of  charge). 


PUBLIC  DEBT  OF   NATIONS  49 


X.    THE  PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  NATIONS. 
(Jordan) 

"God  is  not  sinless,  He  created  borrowers." 
Small  debts  of  kings. 

Borrowed  money;  wasted  money. 

Paid  by  new  loans ;  by  scaling,  by  confiscation,  by  fiat  money, 

by  extortion,  by  plunder. 
"L'etat,  c'est  moi !"    All  the  people  merely  squatters  on  the 

royal  property. 
"Apres  nous  le  deluge !" 
Small  war  debts  of  Eighteenth  Century, 
Making  war  pay  its  way. 
System  of  deferred  payments. 
Repudiation  of  debts  by  kings. 

Constitutional  government  makes  borrowing  possible. 
Began  with  Pitt  in  England,  just  before  1800. 
"The  last  check  upon  war  given  up." 
"O,  how  I  leave  my  country!"  (Pitt's  last  words.) 
Credit  prevents  plunder.    Banks  filled  with  paper,  not  coin. 
Rise  of  war  debts  in  Nineteenth  Century:  A  device  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century. 
Increase  in  size  of  armies — due  to  great  mortality. 
Cost  of  equipment — due  to  scientific  invention. 
Change  from  the  wooden  fleet  of  1812  to  Dreadnoughts  of 
1910,    costing   upwards   of   $12,000,000.      Succeeded 
perhaps  by  swift  hornets,  sending  dreadnoughts  and 
super-dreadnoughts  to  the  junk  heap. 
War  necessarily  prepared  for  long  beforehand. 
Germany ;  Japan ;  France ;  United  States ;  Canada. 
War  preparations  bankrupt  the  nations.     How  those  thrive  who 
have  part  in  supplying  means  of  war ;  the  Unseen  Empire 
and  the  Armament  Syndicates. 
Debt  of  Europe  (mostly  war  debt)  now  $26,000,000,000. 

This  debt  is  not  all  for  war,  especially  in  France.  However, 
as  all  nations  could  pay  their  ordinary  expenses  out 
of  their  ordinary  revenues,  were  it  not  that  they  are  I 

prevented  by  war  and  the  preparation  for  war,  nation- 
al debt  may  properly  be  called  war  debt. 


5o  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

Rise  of  the  Unseen  Empire. 

Mayer  Amschel,  pawnbroker.     "Der  rothe  Schild,"  Frank- 

fort-on-the-Main. 
The  Landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel. 
The    Hessians    (12,000   soldiers   loaned   to   the    British    as 

"Volkshiilfer"). 
Nathan  Rothschild  and  Waterloo. 
Nathan  Rothschild  and  the  Bank  of  England. 
Alphonse    de    Rothschild    and    the    indemnity    of    France 

Wealth  of  Rothschilds  estimated  at  $2,000,000,000. 
Bleichroder,  "The  little  man  who  had  counted  gold  ever  since 

the  Christian  Era." 
Baron  de  Forest  (London). 
Fould,  supporter  of  Napoleon  HI. 

Hirsch,  Austria  and  southeastern  Europe.     ($700,000.000. 1 
Cassel,  the  Nile ;  "uncle"  of  kings. 
Sassoon,  India ;   Stern,  Portugal ;  Goldschmid. 
Giinsburg,  Russia ;  "uncle"  of  the  Czar. 
Montefiore,  Australia.     Mendelssohn.     Ephrussi. 
Bischoffsheim.    Warschafski.    Camondo,  Turkey ;  "uncle"  of 

the  Sultan.    Warschauer. 
Ralli,  "Lord  of  the  Levant."    Pereire,  France.    Wertheimer 
The  Unseen  Empire  or  the  debt  which  controls  Europe. 

To  control  a  railroad  or  a  nation  is  not  to  own  it,  but  to 
"absorb"  or  to  "adjust"  its  debt. 
Countries  not  controlled: 

Uncivilized  states,  not  yet  ready  to  borrow  money. 
Small  states  of  Europe. 
United  States. 
Canada. 
English    houses    have    about    $16,000,000,000    invested    abroad. 
$2,400,000,000    in    America;    $7,000,000,000    in    British 
colonies ;  $^50,000,000  in  Japan ;  $2,000,000,000  in  Austra- 
lia.     (Cf.  Lecture  XXXHL) 
Among  the  English  people  only  six  in  a  hundred  leave  a  last 
will    and    testament.      Wealth  is  in  very  few  hands. 
Two  thousand  five  hundred  men  own  one-half  of  Great 
Britain ;  fifteen  millions  live  on  five  dollars  a  week. 
New  York  has  $250,000,000  invested  in  Europe. 
Theory  that  the  nation  belongs  to  the  present  generation  with  no 
thought  of  the  future. 
Evils  of  deferred  payment. 
Evils  of  indirect  taxation. 
National  debt  the  basis  of  international  credit. 
The  Unseen  Empire,  the  guarantee  of  the  peace  and  financial 
stability  of  Europe. 


PUBLIC   DEBT   OF    NATIONS 


51 


When  all  the  money  is  in  the  hands  of  professional  financiers 

finance  will  be  stable. 
Devices  for  increasing  national  wealth  by  diverting  money  from 

the  poor  who  make  poor  use  of  it  to  the  strong  who  can 

make  money  grow. 
The  kings  become  puppets  or  go  into  banishment.    The  masters 

of  Europe  take  their  place. 
Meanwhile  what  of  Democracy? 

"For  after  all  this  is  the  people's  country." 


THE  PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Figures  for  the  years  1791-1859  derived  from  Annual  Treas- 
urer's Report  for  1893,  page  xcvi. 

Figures  for  the  years  i860- 1894  from  Annual  Treasurer's  Re- 
ports.   Tables  on  "Analysis  of  the  Public  Debt." 

Figures  for  the  years  1895-1912  from  Monthly  Treasurer's 
Reports. 

References 

Hirst:  The  Credit  of  Nations  (Government  Printing  Office). 
Mass.  Commission  on  the  Cost  of  Living   [McSweeney]  :  The 

Waste  of  Militarism  (Pamphlet,  World  Peace  Foundation, 

1910). 
Austin:  North  American  Review.    1901,  6^2i. 
Gorges:  La  Dette  Publique  (1884). 
Journal  de  la  Societe  de  Statistique  de  Paris,  i860,  p.  14-16.    Vol. 

34,  315-17-    Vol.  50,  359-389  (Bonds). 
Statesman's  Year  Book,  1900,  p.  53.     (The  same  table  is  found 

in  other  earlier  editions.) 


52  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

Bloch:  Der  Krieg  I  (1899),  3-245  passim;  277-308. 

Pfitzner:    Entwickelung   d.   kommunalen   Schulden   in   Deutsch- 

land  (1911).     (Tables.) 
Statistical  Abstract  (Engl.)    1908.     (Debt  of  foreign  countries 

in  recent  years.) 
Statistical  Abstract  (U.  S.)   1906,  p.  650  and  appendix  (U.  S. 

debt). 
Statistisches  Jahrbuch  d.  deutschen  Reiches,  1910,  307  (Imperial 

debt). 
Jordan :  The  Waste  of  War. 

Powell :  The  Masters  of  Europe.  Saturday  Evening  Post. 
The    Jewish    Encyclopedia    (under  the  names  of  the  financiers 

mentioned  above). 
Johnson:   Expansion   of   Military   Expenditure   (Pamphlet,   Int. 

Cone.  1911). 
Wilson:  An  Empire  in  Pawn  (1909). 
Loubet:  La  poUtique  budgetaire  en  Europe  (1910). 
Angell  (Lane)  :  Bankers  as  Saviors  of  Society.    London  Public 

Opinion,  Jan.  26  and  Feb.  2,  1912. 
Jordan:  The  Unseen  Empire  (1912). 
Hamilton-Grace:  Finance  and  War  (1910). 
Atkinson:  Facts  and  Figures.     Lecture  6. 
Barr,  J. :  Christianity  and  War.     Lecture  II. 
Levi:  War  and  its  Consequences  (1881). 
World's  Work :  14,  9145-48.    Prevention  of  War. 
British   Sessional    Papers,    1909,    [cd.   4657].      L.   43,   44,    113 

(1835-1908). 
Dewey:  Financial  History  of  the  United  States  (1907).     (Refer- 
ences at  the  beginning  of  the  book.) 
Bloch:  The  Future  of  War  (1902),  128-9;  140-6;  163-318. 
Bullock:  Cost  of  War.     Atlantic  Monthly,  95:  433-45. 
Tarbell :  The  Tariff  in  Our  Times  (1911).     (War'Tariffs.) 
Trueblood :  Cost  of  War. 

Dilke :  Armaments  of  United  Kingdom.    Independent  52 :  1294-7. 
Sundbarg:  Apergus  .  .  .   (1908),  p.  16. 
Stammhammer:    Bibliographic   der   Finanzwissenschaft. 
Statesman's  Year  Book,  1899,  521    (French  debt). 
Allgemeines  Statistisches  Archiv  I,  242,  295  (U.  S.  debt). 
Atkinson:  Cost  of  War  and  Warfare  (1902). 
Atkinson:  Cost  of  a  National  Crime  (1899). 
Atkinson:  The  Hell  of  War  and  its  Penalties  (1899). 
Bastable:  Public  Finance  (1892). 
Lalor:  Encyclopedia,  "Debts,"  p.  726. 
Adams:  Public  Debt  (1890). 


THE  PUBLIC  DEBT  OF  GERMANY. 
iBTo  I8&0  t&9o  t9oo  /^/o 


(The   scale  of  this  plate  is  twice  that  of  the  other  plates.) 

I.  The  Imperial  debt. 

[Source — British   Statistical  Abstract,    1908,   319.] 
II.  Debt  of  the  German  States. 

[Source — Pfitzner:     Entwickelung     der     kommunalen 
Schulden  in  Deutschland,  p.  36.] 
III.  Fluctuation  of  German  bonds. 

[Source — Journal  de  la  Societe  de  Statistique  de  Paris, 
Vol.  50,  p.  362.] 


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56  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 


XL    ARMAMENT  SYNDICATES  AND  WAR  SCARES. 

(Jordan) 

A.  Armament  syndicates. 

Francis  McCulIagh,  in  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  describes 
the  greatest  "of  the  unseen  and  pernicious  forces  with  which  econ- 
omists have  to  contend."  These  are  "the  powerful  companies 
which  exist  to  produce  armaments  and  which  have  been  en- 
couraged to  increase  their  capital  obligations  within  the  last  few 
years  by  the  successive  scares  and  naval  programmes  of  the  last 
decade." 

The  capitalization  of  the  six  leading  English  firms  is  thus 
given  in  the  London  Morning  Leader: 

Issued  Share         Debenture 
Capital  Capital 

Vickers'  Sons  &  Maxim £5,200,000  £2,956,200 

Cammell,  Laird  &  Co 2,372,895  1,728,511 

Armstrong,  Whitworth  &  Co.  . .   4,210,000  2,500,000 

Wm.  Beardmore  &  Co 2,000,000  1,716,621 

John  Brown  &  Co 3,218,500  1,018,292 

Thames  Ironworks  Co 600,000  261,044 


Total    £17,601,395       £10,180,468 

$85,368,765       $49,375,267 

This  list  is  by  no  means  complete  so  far  as  England  is  con- 
cerned. "The  importance  of  these  figures,"  says  the  correspon- 
dent of  the  Post,  "is  evident.  The  country  has  encouraged  pri- 
vate concerns  to  expend  these  sums  so  that  they  may  be  produc- 
tive of  profits  year  by  year  for  the  benefit  of  their  shareholders. 
Any  restriction  in  the  building  of  armaments  either  by  the  home 
or  foreign  governments  has  disastrous  results  on  the  year's 
profits.  It  requires  no  stretch  of  the  imagination  to  see  that  the 
enormous  numbers  of  investors  in  every  class  of  society  scattered 
through  the  country  exert  a  subtle  influence  in  favor  of  the  ex- 
pansion of  armaments.  The  numbers  are  not  so  much  as  the 
quality.  According  to  the  "Investor's  Review,"  the  social  posi- 
tion of  some  of  the  leading  owners  of  three  of  the  principal  firms 
is  as  follows: 


ARMAMENT  SYNDICATES  AND   WAR   SCARES 


57 


^Ts^ixfr^  ^"-^rcr"  wh= 

Duke    2  I 

Marquess    2 

Earl,  baron,  or  wife,  son,  or 

daughter  of 50  10                    60 

Baronet    15  2                     15 

Knight   5  5                     20 

M.  P 3  2                       8 

J.  P 7  9  3 

K.  C 5 

Military  or  naval  officer  . .   21  2  20 
Naval  architect  or  govern- 
ment contractor   2 

Financier   3  I 

Journalist  (including  news- 
paper proprietors) 6  3  8 

The  plant  of  Vickers'  Sons  and  Maxim  is  prepared  to  lay 
down  and  complete  three  Dreadnoughts  in  three  years  without 
going  outside  its  own  factories. 

In  referring  to  the  standing  army  of  1,041,000  men  now 
maintained  by  the  British  Empire,  Mr.  G.  H.  Ferris  says  (Hands 
Across  the  Sea,  p.  10)  [The  figures  upon  the  size  of  armies  given 
by  Ferris  are  larger  than  those  usually  given]  :  "This  is  the  largest 
peace  establishment  in  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Russian  army,  which  is  of  about  the  same  size.  Those  of  Ger- 
many and  France  number  only  about  650,000  men.  Of  the  million 
of  our  soldiery,  776,000  are  Britishers,  665,000  being  located  at 
home,  and  the  remainder  exiled  mainly  in  tropical  or  sub-tropical 
lands.  To  this  776,000,  we  must  add  185,000  men  of  the  Fleet  and 
the  Naval  Reserve.  And  behind  this  force  of  961,000  able-bodied 
and  middle-aged  Englishmen,  there  lie  two  bodies,  also  of  adult 
men,  most  skilled  and  able-bodied,  whose  mmibers  can  be  only 
approximately  determined:  (i)  Those  engaged  in  the  arsenals 
and  dockyards,  and  the  numerous  armament  trades,  and  (2)  Fen- 
sioners,  small  and  large,  possibly  100,000  of  them,  since  their  cost 
on  the  Estimates  is  about  2,500,000  pounds  a  year. 

"The  probability  is,  then,  that  at  least  1,500,000  adult  able- 
bodied  men — or  one  in  six  of  the  "occupied"  adult  males  of  the 
United  Kingdom — share,  to  some  extent,  in  the  65,000,000  pounds 
a  year  which  we  spend  on  the  twin  'defense'  services.  Thus,  even 
when  we  remember  that  many  of  these,  like  the  'Terriers'  and 
Reservists,  get  a  mere  allowance,  while  a  large  part  of  the  regular 
army  is  paid  for  by  India,  it  will  be  seen  that  we  have  here  the 


;^8  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

most  widely  ramified  of  all  our  vested  interests,  a  fearful  drag 
upon  reproductive  industry,  and  an  influence  which  must  often 
diverge  from  the  straight  line  of  democratic  advance.  The  big 
prizes,  of  course,  all  go  to  a  small  class  of  financiers  and  indus- 
trial magnates,  who,  in  order  to  keep  the  game  going,  exert  a 
thoroughly  pernicious  influence  on  Parliament  and  middle-class 
opinion.  The  higher  officer  ranks  of  the  army  and  navy  are  an 
aristocratic  preserve,  and  are  highly  organized  for  the  advance- 
ment of  their  professional  interests.  This  alliance  of  money 
power  and  class  power,  whose  shibboleth  and  trademark  is 
'Imperialism,'  includes  the  most  determinedly  reactionary  ele- 
ments in  British  society." 

"War,"  says  the  German  Colonel  Gadke,  "is  the  father  of 
other  wars.  The  more  we  think  of  our  own  power  and  ability, 
the  oftener  we  have  tasted  of  the  fruit  of  victorious  war,  the 
more  are  we  surrounded  by  the  evil  spirit  of  Chauvinism  and  of 
Imperialism.    War  is  the  father  of  other  wars." 

B.  War  means  business  for  armament  makers. 

1.  Roar  of  indignation  at  the  discharge  of  men  from  Wool- 

wich at  the  close  of  the  South  African  War  (Syndi- 
cates for  War,  p.  yi.) 

2.  Similar  conditions  elsewhere. 

a.  "King  Krupp  of  Essen."    Embassadors  in  every  capi- 

tal, "strong,  silent  men,"  covered  with  glory  when 
they  stir  up  trouble.  Egging  powers  to  purchase 
arms  by  showing  orders  of  rivals. 

b.  In  Japan.     The  Times  says  of  Mitsu  Bishi  (a  ship- 

building firm)  that  it  was  diflficult  sometimes 
to  say  where  this  firm  began  and  where  the  gov- 
ernment ended.  Probably  literally  true  as  the 
government  is  a  partner  in  the  Mitsu  Bishi. 

c.  Millions  spent  in  "tips"  and  douceurs. 

d.  Trail  of  bribery  everywhere.    Servia,  Russia,  Argen- 

tina, Turkey. 
Russia  the  paradise  of  the  armament  maker. 
c.  Sale  of  old  weapons,  to  Albanians,  Arabs,  Abyssini- 

ans.  Moors,  Central  Americans,  Central  Africans, 

Caucasians,  Afghans,  Chinese,  Senegambians. 
"Civilization  in  the  Dark  Continent  has  much  to 

answer  for,  beginning  with  rum  and  ending  with 

rifles." 


ARMAMENT   SYNDICATES  AND   WAR   SCARES  59 

War  scares  mean  business  for  armament  makers. 
I.  Origin  of  war  scares. 

a.  Irresponsible  talk  and  ignorance  of  the  facts. 

"If  our  navy  should  shrink  to  lesser  proportions  and 
should  be  permitted  to  fall  below  the  level  of 
Germany,  France  and  Japan,  these  nations  would 
bully  our  commerce  and  insult  our  Monroe  Doc- 
trine whenever  they  felt  like  it." — Republican 
Peace  Committee,  New  York. 

Germany  says,  "War  is  the  only  means  of  fulfilling 
national  purpose.  Preparation  for  war  seems  the 
first  business  of  government." 

"If,  while  nations  remain,  war  is  to  be  abolished, 
then  unless  the  degeneration  of  people  can  be 
prevented,  to  say  there  shall  be  no  more  war 
means  there  shall  be  no  more  progress." 

"Many  thousand  Japanese  troops  already  established 
in  the  guise  of  settlers  in  the  United  States  and  in 
Mexico." 

"Japan  has  bought  secretly  from  Mexico  a  coaling 
station  in  Magdalena  Bay." 

"The  Shadow  of  Conflict  and  of  displacement 
greater  than  any  which  mankind  has  known  since 
Attila  and  his  Huns  were  stayed  at  Chalons  is 
visibly  impending  over  the  world.  Almost  can  the 
ear  of  imagination  hear  the  gathering  of  the 
legions  for  the  fiery  trial  of  peoples,  a  sound  vast 
as  the  trumpet  of  the  Lord  of  Hosts." 

"The  waning  fleet  of  Great  Britain  is  tied  to  its  own 
shores  by  German  menace." 

"In  time  of  peace,  prepare  for  war." 

b.  The  military  element,  "bored  almost  to  death,  kept 

from  quarreling  only  by  the  strictest  discipline, 
officers  and  men,  separated  from  family  and  with 
no  hope  of  the  future  except  from  war." 

"Just  as  nervous  and  just  as  persistent"  when  a 
thousand  millions  more  are  wasted  as  they  are 
now. 

Alliance  with  protected  interests. 

Jingoism :  turning  aside  reforms. 

c.  Yellow  journalism. 

d.  Armament  syndicates. 

"Look  for  the  simplest  motives  in  explanation  of 
action  or  of  conduct ;  somebody  makes  something 
by  reason  of  the  huge  expenditures  in  preparation 
for  war." 


60  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

"Have  you  ever  noticed  that  about  the  time  that 
appropriations  for  mihtary  purposes  are  under 
consideration  in  Congress,  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  or  in  the 
Reichstag,  or  just  before  such  a  time,  hostilities 
are  always  on  the  point  of  breaking  out  in  two  or 
three  parts  of  the  world  at  once?" 

"It  might  be  worth  while  to  make  some  measure- 
ment of  the  sincerity  and  disinterestedness  of  the 
lively  type  of  patriotism  which  accompanies  these 
military  and  naval  debates  the  world  over." 
2.  War  scares. 

a.  England: 

Danger  of  German  aggression.-  "The  Englishman's 
Home."  Need  of  armament  23^  times  that  of  any 
other  nation,  to  protect  commerce  and  colonies. 
African  problems.  Revolt  of  India.  Incursion  of 
Russia  along  Persian  frontier.  Imminent  seizure 
of  Holland  and  Belgium  by  Germany. 

b.  Germany: 

Dominance  of  Great  Britain.  Unprotected  com- 
merce and  colonies.  Aggressions  on  Persia.  Pan- 
slavism.  Alsace-Lorraine.  Africa  (Morocco 
and  Congo).     Asia  Minor  (Bagdad  railroad). 

c.  France: 

Germany  in  Holland ;  Africa. 

d.  Austria: 

Panslavism.    "Italia  Irredenta."    Balkan  States. 

e.  Italy: 

"Italia  Irredenta,"  Tripoli. 
/.  Russia: 

Japan,  Germany,  England,  Sweden,  Poland,  Persia, 
Turkey,  China. 
g.  Australia: 

White  Australia. 
h.  Persia: 

England,  Russia,  Turkey. 
i.  United  States : 

Europe  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine.     Germany  and 
Southern  Brazil.     Designs  of  Japan    (See  Lec- 
ture XII).     The  Philippines.     Hawaii.     Panama 
Canal, 
y.  Japan : 

Designs  of  the  United  States.  Designs  of  Russia- 
China. 


ARMAMENT   SYNDICATES   AND   WAR   SCARES  6l 

k.  China : 

"The  watermelon  to  be  divided."  'The  Yellow 
Peril." 

Spheres  of  influence  of  England,  France,  Germany, 
Japan,  Russia. 

American  concessions. 
/.  Espionage  in  time  of  peace.     Has  only  recently  come 
to  be  a  noteworthy  source  of  international  differ- 
ence. 
Several  states  have  enacted  legislation  for  self-pro- 
tection. 

France — "Loi  contre  I'espionage,  April  i8,  1886 
(British  and  Foreign  State  Papers,  yy,  1198- 
1200). 

Great  Britain — Notification  to  French  Travellers 
against  Sketching,  May  8,  1886  (State  Papers, 
77,  1201). 

Great  Britain — Ofiicial  Secrets  Act,  Aug.  26,  1889 
(British  and  Foreign  State  Papers,  81,  644-48}. 

Germany —  [July  3?],  1893. 

United  States — Act  to   Prevent  the  Disclosure  of 
National   Secrets,    March   3,    191 1    (Statutes   of 
U.  S.  6ist  Congress,  3  Sess.,  1910,  Part  I,  1084-5). 
m.  Sea  power  and  its  purposes. 

1.  National  defense. 

2.  Maintenance  of  peace. 

3.  Marine  insurance. 

4.  Defense  against  designing  nations. 

5.  Protection  or  subjugation  of  dependencies. 

6.  Control  of  the  sea. 

7.  Ceremonial  purposes. 

The  greater  the  sea  power,  the  weaker  the  nation  that 

buys  it. 
The  "sinews  of  war"  are  not  war-ships  nor  soldiers, 

but  money. 
A  war-ship  is  good  for  an  hour's  fighting.    In  real 
war  after  an  hour  every  ship  is  victorious,  sunk, 
captured,  or  run  away. 
Every  organ  demands  its  functional  use.    The  func- 
tion of  war-ships  is  war. 
D.  Who  wants  war? 

Not  the  people  anywhere. 

Not  the  rulers  anywhere. 

Not  business  anywhere. 

Not  the  Unseen  Empire  of  Finance. 

Militarists  sometimes   (not  always). 

Journalists  sometimes  (not  honest  journalists). 


62  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

"We  (of  Germany)  are  a  commercial  and  agricultural  nation 
and  we  want  peace  and  are  peaceful  notwithstanding  the  utter- 
ances of  some  irresponsible  half-pay  generals  and  admirals  who 
want  promotion  for  their  relations,  and  the  unpardonable  levity 
of  representatives  of  the  press,  who  write  against  better  know- 
ledge and  only  for  sensation's  sake.  .  .  .  Truth  and  fairness  in 
the  press  would  make  things  much  easier  and  allow  nations  to 
understand  each  other." — (Baron  von  Roeder,  Berlin.) 

E.  The  Moral. 

"The  moral  is  when  next  you  read  a  war  scare,  reassure 
your  native  intelligence  by  making  the  sound  "pooh-pooh." 
In  the  current  idiom :  It  is  all  punk." — (A^.  Y.  Evening  Post.) 

"The  only  national  defense  Great  Britain  needs  is  de- 
fense against  her  armament  syndicates." — (G.  H.  Perris.) 

References 

McCullagh :  Syndicates  for  War.    In  N.  Y.  Evening  Post,  April 

I,  1911. 
Same:  Reprinted  by  the  World  Peace  Foundation,  Boston. 
Makers  of  War  Scares:  N.  Y.  Evening  Post,  April  12,  1911. 
Influence  of  Capital:  A''.  Y.  Evening  Post,  April  12,  1911. 
Perris :  Hands  Across  the  Sea. 
Homer  Lea:  The  Valor  of  Ignorance  (1909). 
Wyatt:  War  as  a  Test  of  National  Value.    Nineteenth  Century, 

45,  216-225. 
Perris :  Labor's  Plea  for  International  Peace. 
Childe:  War  and  Business,  Harper's  Weekly,  December  9,  1911. 
Cobden :  Three  Panics. 
Hobson :  Psychology  of  Jingoism. 


A  WAR  SCARE UNITED  STATES  AND  JAPAN  63 


\il.     A    WAR    SCARE.— THE    UNITED    STATES    AND 

JAPAN. 

(Jordan) 

.1.  Early  history  of  Japan. 

Hideyoshi  and  Korea  (i 592-1 598). 

Temples  and  palaces. 
/'.  Feudal  system. 

Shogun  and  the  Mikado. 

Portuguese  in  Japan. 

Dutch  at  Nagasaki. 
(  .  Modern  Japan. 

Commodore  Perry  at  Kurihama  (1854). 
The  Treaty  Ports. 

Shimonoseki  affair  (1864). 

General  Grant  at  Nikko. 

Consular  jurisdiction   (1899). 

War  with  China  (1894-5). 

War  with  Russia  (1904-5). 

Protectorate  over  Korea  (1904). 

Absorption  of  Korea  (1910). 
D.  The  "Japanese  Question." 

1.  Steamship  agents  bring  rice-field  laborers  from  Okayama, 

Hiroshima  and  Yamaguchi  to  Hawaii.  .  These,  the 
lowest  class  of  Japanese  (not  criminal  nor  weak- 
minded)  virtually  slaves  in  Hawaii. 

2.  Warning  of  W.  W.  Scott,  of  clash  with  European  labor- 

ers due  to  low  standards  of  living  and  lack  of  common 
traditions  (1898).  Refusal  of  Japanese  Government 
to  issue  passports  to  this  class  to  come  to  America. 
(1899).  Annexation  of  Hawaii  to  United  States 
(1898)  gives  freedom  to  Hawaiian  laborers.  Influx 
of  laborers  to  California.  Injury  to  reputation  of 
Japan  (being  judged  by  its  lowest  and  least  educated 
class). 

3.  Race  prejudice,  economic  prejudice,  exploitation. 

4.  Efforts  at  exclusion  of  Japanese  unskilled  laborers. 

5.  The  demand  for  them  in  the  fruit  orchards  and  as  house 

servants. 

6.  Their  preference  for  work  in  cities. 


64  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

7.  Agreement  with  Japanese  Government  that  no  passports 

be  issued  to  unskilled  laborers  to  come  to  Hawaii  or 
to  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  that  all  Japanese  with  pass- 
ports be  received  without  question. 

8.  Efforts  to  make  political  capital  by  exclusion  bills  after 

desired  results  had  been  fully  attained. 

9.  Efforts  of  "Anti-Japanese"  to  change  public  opinion. 
ID.  Objections  to  "Oriental  exclusion"  projects. 

11.  Economic  reasons  for  exclusion  not  without  cogency. 

12.  Racial  reasons  for  exclusion. 

Of  doubtful  validity. 

13.  Social  reasons  for  exclusion. 

Fecundity,  disregard  for  contracts,  lack  of  business 
honesty. 

Ambition  to  rise  above  situation,  bad  neighbors,  non- 
assimilation,  low  standards  of  morality. 

14.  Japanese  reasons  for  exclusion. 

Ricefield  "coolies"  giving  wrong  impression  of  character 
and  culture  of  Japanese  people. 

E.  Japanese  students  in  America. 

F.  School  question  in  San  Francisco. 

a.  Question  at  issue.  Was  an  "Oriental  School"  (no  Chinese 
being  present)  a  violation  of  "most  favored  nation"  clause 
in  treaty?  Probably,  but  not  certainly.  Matter  originally 
without  significance  and  without  malice.  Given  impor- 
tance by  Japanese  protest,  by  newspapers  of  both  countries, 
and  by  misrepresentation  and  exaggeration. 

h.  Proper  course  of  action  apparently  an  injunction  suit. 

c.  Message  of  President. 

G.  The  Manchurian  railway  question. 

Suggested  sale  to  China,  to  be  directed  by  outside  syndicate, 
unwelcome  and  doubtless  impracticable. 
H.  The  fur  seal  question. 

1.  The  Pribilof  herd  reduced   (1888  to  1900)  from  1,000,- 

000  breeding  females  to  200,000. 

2.  Work  of  Canadian  pelagic  sealers. 

Further  reduced  to  about  30,000,  largely  by  Japanese 
pelagic  sealers. 

3.  Matter  settled  wisely  and  justly  by  treaty  of  1910.    Great 

Britain,  Russia,  Japan  and  the  United  States. 
/.  No  question  has  ever  disturbed  the  friendly  relations  of  the 
governments   of   the   two   nations.      Some   matters   have 
made  local  or  temporary  friction,  but  these  all  fully  ad- 
justed. 


A  WAR  SCARE UNITED  STATES  AND  JAPAN  65 

American  sympathy  with  Japan : 

In   early   days,   work   of   Harris,   Denison,   Chamberlain, 

Mendenhall,  Morse,  Hearn,  Terry,  Swift  and  others. 
In  war  with  China. 
In  war  with  Russia. 

The  "Pro- Japanese"  and  "Anti- Japanese." 
Problems  of  the  Japanese  Government. 
War  scares  in  America  and  Japan. 
Wicked  imaginings  for  wicked  purposes. 
Japanese  love  America. 

Many  of  the  ablest  were  educated  in  America, 
America  is  Japan's  best  customer. 
America  is  Japan's  most  constant  friend. 
The   outside   ambitions   of   Japan   centre   on   Korea   and 

South  Manchuria. 
She  is  nearest  the  greatest  political  problem  of  the  world: 

the  future  of  China. 
She  has  no  money  to  waste  on  war  in  any  quarter. 
/.  Peace  Societies  in  Japan. 

References 

Jordan :  Relations  of  Japan  and  the  United  States.     Journal  of 
Race  Development  2,  No.  3,  January  1912  (also  pamphlet). 
De  Forest:  The  Truth  about  Japan.     (Pamphlet.) 


66  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 


XIII.     MORTALITY  AND  MORBIDITY  IN  WAR. 

(Krehbiel) 

This  lecture,  which  is  statistical  in  character,  is  based  on 
the  references  below,  especially  on  the  works  of  Bodart,  and 
Myrdacz.  From  the  indications  of  these  works  the  following 
general  statements  may  be  drawn. 

Average  number  of  men  killed  outright  in  battle,  2.2% — 

2.5% 
Average  number  wounded,  8% — 10%. 
(Ratio  of  killed  to  wounded,  i    -.4.) 
Average  number  fatally  wounded,  10%. 
Average  number  of  whole  force  dying  from  wounds, 
ca.   1%. 
(Attention  to  military  hygiene  has  diminished  this 
number  considerably.) 
Deaths  from  disease  depend  on  conditions.     In  the  Crimean 
War  the  rate  was  as  high  as  16%  in  the  armies  of  the 
allies ;  four  men  died  of  sickness  to  every  one  from 
war. 
In    the    Franco-Prussian    War    deaths    from    disease 
(not  counting  wounded)  was  .1.8%  of  the  whole 
force. 
The  total  loss  from  battle  on  land  (including  killed,  wounded, 
prisoners,  deserters,  unaccounted  for)  usually  amounts 
to  less  than  25%   of  the  whole  force  engaged.  The 
rate  is  higher  for  naval  engagements.     (For  a  list  of 
battles  with  unusually  high  losses  see  Bodart,  p.  831- 
847.) 


mortality  and  morbidity  in  war  67 

References 
Loss  of  life. 
Bodart:  Militar-historisches  Kriegs-Lexikon,  1618-1905   (1908). 
Myrdacz:    Handbuch    fiir  k.  und  k.  Militarartzte    (1898-1905), 

Vol.  II. 
Seeck:  Geschichte  des  Untergangs  der  antiken  Welt  (1897-1911), 

I,  270-308. 
Levasseur:  Statistique  des  batailles  et  des  pertes  causees  par  la 

guerre  depuis  trois  siecles,  in  Journal  de  la  Soc.  de  Statis- 
tique de  Paris,  1909,  224-236. 
La    Population    Frangaise    (1899-1902)    II,    139-140;    III,    533. 

Index  "Guerres." 
Longmore:  Gunshot  Injuries  (1895). 
Great   Britain,   Parliamentary   Papers,    1907    (25),   XLIX,  729. 

Killed  and  wounded  in  English  wars,  1898-1903. 
Richet:  Le  passe  de  la  guerre  ...  61. 
Seaman:  Real  Triumph  of  Japan  (1906). 
Denifle:  Desolation  des  eglises  (1897-99). 
Heitman:  Historical  Register  (1903)  II,  281-297. 
Journal  de  la  Societe  de  Statistique  de  Paris,  1909,  142;  224-36; 

417-427. 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  IX,  114:  289-90. 
Munson:  Theory  and  Practice  of  Military  Hygiene  (1901). 
Bloch:  Der  Krieg  (1899)   IV,  35-64;  V,  349-603. 
Bloch:  Future  of  War  (1902)   147-159. 
Dodge:  Great  Captains   (Appendices). 
Harbottle:  Dictionary  of  Battles  (1004). 
Mulhall:  Statistics  (1903)   586,  818. 

Statistics  of  births,  marriages  and  deaths. 
Statistisches   Jahrbuch    d.    deutschen   Reiches,    191 1,   22    (1859- 

1909).* 
Rauchberg:  Die  Bevolkerung  Oesterreichs  (1895)  27  (Statistics 

for  I 822- I 890). 
La  Population  Franqaise,  II,  p.  12   (Births,  1801-1888). 

II,  p.  58  (Deaths,  1801-1888). 
II,  p.  76  (Marriages,  1801-1888). 
Vital  Statistics,  Part  i,  1909,  pp.  437,  438,  443. 

p.  486    (Japan,    1887- 1905). 
p.  483  (Italy,  1872-1904). 
"  "  "        p.  412-17  (Hungary,  1876- 1 905). 

Army  and  Navy  Gazette,  Oct.  28,  191 1.    "Losses  in  War." 
Dumas:  Mortality  of  Civil  Population  in  Time  of  War.     Peace 
Movement,  March  30,   191 2. 


68  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL   CONCILIATION 


XIV.    BIOLOGY  OF  WAR. 
(Jordan) 

Heredity,  the  law  of  continuity  among  organisms.  Like  the  seed 
is  the  harvest. 

Law  of  Variation,  almost  alike  but  never  quite. 

Law  of  Selection,  preservation  of  the  adaptable ;  survival  of  the 
fittest. 

Law  of  Isolation,  survival  of  the  existing. 

All  these  laws  apply  to  man  as  to  the  lower  animals. 

Selection  lays  hold  of  variation.  Heredity  reproduces  what  is 
left.     Isolation  confirms  hereditary  traits. 

Selection  as  the  magician's  wand. 

Reversed  selection.     Dysgenics. 

"La  guerre  a  produit  a  tout  temps  une  selection  a  rebours." 

Rome,    viri,  virilis. 

Eflfect  of  domination. 

"Vir"  gave  place  to  "Homo." 

Rise  of  the  Emperor.  Emperors  as  barometers.  Emperor  ex- 
ponent of  the  mob.  "The  little  finger  of  Constantine  was 
stronger  than  the  loins  of  Augustus." 

Marius  destroyed  the  aristocrats.  Sulla  the  democrats.  "Only 
cowards  remained  and  from  their  brood  came  forward  the 
new  generations"  (Seeck).  "The  Roman  empire  perished 
for  want  of  men"  (Seeley).  "The  human  harvest  was 
bad."  Militarism  knows  no  country.  "The  brigands'  and 
.  barbarians'  contempt  for  honest  industry." 

"A  physical,  not  a  moral  decay." 

Decline  selective,  not  collective. 

Novara,  Magenta,  Solferino,  Sedan,  Moscow,  Waterloo.  Of  the 
600,000  "who  proudly  crossed  the  Niemen  for  the  conquest 
of  Russia,  only  20,000  half-naked,  famished,  frost-bitten, 
unarmed  spectres  staggered  across  the  bridge  of  Korno  in 
the  middle  of  December."  (Cambridge  Modern  History, 
IX,  505,  places  the  loss  of  the  French  army  at  500,000; 
and  estimates  that  100,000  men  was  all  that  was  left  of 
the  Grand  Army.)  3,700,000  of  the  "eUte  of  Europe" 
slain  by  Napoleon. 

Disappearance  of  physical  strength,  alertness,  dash,  recklessness, 
patriotism,  qualities  chosen  in  the  soldier. 

Effect  of  emigration.    Oberammergau,  Devon,  Winchelsea,  Rye. 


BIOLOGY  OF  WAR  69 

Germany:  The  Thirty  Years  war,  1618-1648. 

Population  reduced  from  16,000,000  to  6,000,000.    Only  one- 
third  survived,  and  in  some  districts  as  few  as  one- 
tenth.— (Cambridge  Mod.  Hist.  IV,  418.) 
Effects  of  the  war  concealed  by  industrialism  and  paternal- 
ism. 
Spain. 

"This  is  Castile;  She  makes  men  and  wastes  them."    "This 
sublime  and  terrible  phrase  sums  up  the  whole  of 
Spanish  history." 
Switzerland. 

The  Lion  at  Lucerne.      (Thorwaldsen.)      "Biederkeit  and 

Tapferkeit ;  the  valor  which  is  worth  and  truth." 
"Sons  of  the  men  who  knelt  at  Sempach,  but  not  to  thee,  O 
Burgundy." 
Japan.    Venezuela.    Paraguay.    Samarcand.    Korea.    China, 
England. 

The  "Widow  in  Sleepy  Chester." 
Memorial  tablets. 
"Its  only  my  dead  that  count." 

Disappearance   of  the   English   squire   and   of  John   Bull. 
Country  squires  exchanged  for  memorial  tablets. 
"O  Cromwell's  England,  must  thou  yield 

For  every  inch  of  ground  a  son?" 
"Childless  and  with  thorn-crowned  head, 
Up  the  steep  road  must  England  go." 
The  United  States. 

The  Civil  War  cost  the  North  359,528  men.  The  National 
cemeteries,  about  1600  acres.  North  Carolina.  152,000 
volunteers  from  Massachusetts.  (Heitman,  II,  285.) 
Where  are  Boston's  forty  orators?  The  Harvard 
Memorial  roll. 
The  War  cost  the  South  315,979  lives  (Annual  Cyclopedia, 
1865,   81-85). 

"The  remnant  just  eleven. 
Once  twinkled  a  thousand  bayonets 
And  the  swords  were  thirty-seven." 

The  Law  of  Quetelet:  the  same  number  of  each  type  in  each 
generation.    True  only  when  parentage  is  the  same. 

"War  does  not  of  choice  destroy  bad  men  but  good  men  ever." — • 
(Sophocles.) 

"Ja  der  Krieg  verschlingt  die  Besten." — (Schiller.) 

"A  la  guerre,  ce  sont  toujours  les  memes  qui  se  font  tuer." — 
(French  Proverb.) 

"Where  we  left  the  bravest  of  us, 
There's  a  deeper  green  of  the  sod." — (Captain  Brownell.) 


70  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

"O  band  in  the  pine  wood,  cease, 
Cease  with  your  splendid  call, 
The  living  are  brave  and  noble 
But  the  dead  were  bravest  of  all." — (John  Esten  Cooke.) 

"Cut  off  from  the  land  that  bore  us 
Betrayed  by  the  land  we  find 
The  brightest  are  gone  before  us 
And  the  dullest  are  left  behind." 

— (Bartholomew  Dowling.) 

"Proudly  they  walk  but  each  Cameron  knows 
He  may  tread  the  heather  no  more." 

— (May  Campbell.) 

"Wars  are  not  paid  for  in  war  time; 
the  bill  comes  later." — (Franklin.) 


biology  of  war  7 1 

References 

Seeck:  Geschichte  des  Untergangs  der  antiken  Welt  (1897  f.) 

I,  270-308:  Die  Ausrottung  der  Besten. 
Galton:  Natural  Inheritance  (1889). 
Jordan:  The  Blood  of  the  Nation  (1910). 
The  Human  Harvest  (1906). 
War  and  Manhood   (1910). 
The  Waste  of  Nations. 
La  guerre  et  la  virilite. 
La  moisson  humaine. 
Kokumin  no  Kotto. 
La  Cosecha  Humana   (1912). 
Wolf:  System  der  Sozialpolitik,  I,  218. 
Novicow:  Critique  du  darwinisme  sociale  (1907). 

Militarism  or  Manhood.    Arena,  24,  379-92. 
Schallmayer:  Vererbung  und  Auslese  im  Lebenslauf  der  Volker 

(1903),  249-266. 
Schallmayer:  Dies  und  Das.     D.  Neue  Jahrh.  T,  581. 
Novicow :  War  and  its  Alleged  Benefits  ( 191 1 ) . 
Association    Medicale    Internationale    contre  la  Guerre :    Actes 

(1910).  • 
Pearson:  National  Life  from  the  Standpoint  of  Science  (1901). 
Seeck:  Zeitphrasen  (1892). 

Ammon:  Die  natiirliche  Auslese  beim  Menschen  (1893). 
Ammon:  Die  Gesellschaftsordnung  und  ihre  naturliche  Grund- 

lagen   (1895). 
Lapouge:  Les  selections  sociales  (1896). 
Miiller:   Ein  Ziichtigungsversuch  an   Mais.     Kosmos,   1886,  II, 

p.  22. 
Memoires  de  la  Societe  Anthropol.,  I,  Ser.  II,  224;  252. 
La  Population  Frangaise  (1889-92)  III,  524;  533  ;  Index,  "Taille." 
Richet:  Le  passe  de  la  guerre  .  .  .  (1907),  75-90. 
Havelock  Ellis:  The  Soul  of  Spain   (1908),  chapter  II, 
Schallmayer:  Der  Krieg  als  Ziichter. 

Mass.  Commission  on  the  Cost  of  Living :  The  Waste  of  Militar- 
ism. (Extract  published  in  pamphlet  form  by  World  Peace 
Foundation,  1910.) 


f 


72  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 


XV.     SOCIAL  AND  MORAL  EFFECTS  OF  WAR. 

(Jordan) 

"Inter  arma  leges  silent." 

"Ein  furchtbar  heulend  Schreckniss  ist  der  Krieg." — (Schiller.) 
"Disguise  fair  nature  with  hard  favored  rage." 
"You'd  never  have  known  him  then  with  the  flame  of  fight  in 
his  eyes." 

"Fear  a  forgotten  form, 

Death  a  dream  of  the  eyes, 
We  were  atoms  in  God's  great  storm 
That  swept  through  the  angry  skies." 

"Ended  the  mighty  noise, 

Thunder  of  forts  and  ships. 

Down  we  went  to  the  hold. 
Oh,  our  dear  dying  boys ! 
How  we  pressed  their  poor  brave  lips. 

Ah,  so  palHd  and  cold! 
And  held  their  hands  to  the  last. 

Those  that  had  hands  to  hold. 

"Be  still,  O  woman  heart ! 
So  strong  an  hour  ago; 
If  the  idle  tears  must  start, 
'Tis  not  in  vain  they  flow. 

Lie  thus,  for  a  myriad  lives 

And  treasure-millions  untold, 
Labor  of  poor  men's  lives, 
Hunger  of  weans  and  wives. 

Such  is  war- wasted  gold." — (Brownell.) 

"Grim  is  the  sea  and  cruel, 
Fierce  are  the  winds  and  fell ; 
But  the  strife  of  man  is  the  fuel 
That  feeds  the  fires  of  Hell!"— (Gray.) 

The  restraints  of  manhood  unloosed. 
Military  versus  civilian  ideals. 

o.  Robbery,  arson,  brutality,  blasphemy,  rape,  murder. 
b.  Courage,  magnanimity,  heroism,  patriotism. 
"Chair  pour  le  canon."    "A  boy  will  stop  a  bullet  as  well  as 
a  man."    "A  soldier  like  me  does  not  care  a  tinker's 
damn  for  the  lives  of  a  million  men." — (Napoleon.) 


SOCIAL  AND   MORAL  EFFECTS   OF  WAR  73 

The  army  as  an  instrument  of  plunder. 

"We  brought  back  a  thousand  cattle  and  the  head  of  him 

that  owned  them." 
Outrages  of  the  allied  armies  in  China.     Plunder  of  astro- 
nomical observatory.    Trial  of  Kunert  at  Halle. 
The  army  as  a  political  machine. 
Militarism.     Conscription. 

Petty  abuses  of  power;  subjection  of  soldiers;  idleness;  bar- 
rack vulgarity ;  vice ;  record  of  barrack  life. 
Infectious  diseases.    "The  Queen's  Daughters."    Efforts  of 
the  medical  staff  for  sanitation.    22  instead  of  54%  in 
France. 
The  army  as  a  means  of  defense. 

Police  duties  of  the  army. 
Alleged  degeneracy  of  peace. 

"Without  war  the  world  would  degenerate  and  disappear  in 

a  morass  of  materialism." — (Moltke.) 
War,  "the  red  rain  which  fertilizes  and  purifies  humanity." 
Alleged  unchangeability  of  human  nature  and  its  pugnacity. 
Alleged  survival  of  warlike  nations. 

Alleged  constancy  of  physical  force  as  the  dominant  factor. 
Human  nature  has  changed  its  manifestations  through 

co-operation,  civilization,  religion. 
Warlike  nations  never  have  survived. 
Co-operation  is  the  dominant  force. 
False  ideals  of  patriotism. 

Dreyfus  case.     Boer  war.     Spanish  war.     "Remember  the 

Maine." 
"Patriotism  is  killing  Spaniards." 
"Patriotism    the    last    refuge    of    a    scoundrel." — (Samuel 

Johnson.) 
Patriotism:  love  of  country  and  willingness  to  help  in  any 
way  to  her  real  advantage. 
Moral  damage  of  war. — (Walter  Walsh.) 
To  the  Nation. 
Child. 
Soldier — depends  on  circumstances.      (Walsh,  p.   156, 

160.) 
Politician — "Hot  fits"  or  long  preparation. 
Journalist. 

Preacher — "War,  God's  assizes."    Ordeal  of  nations. 
Missionary. 
Trader. 

Citizen — extension  of  graft;  loose  views  of  life. 
Patriot. 
Reformer. 


74  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

"Let  your  reforms  for  a  moment  go. 

Look  to  your  butts  and  take  good  aims. 
Better  a  rotten  borough  or  so, 

Than  a  rotten  fleet  and  a  city  in  flames." — (Tennyson.) 

References 

La  Population  Frangaise  (1889-92)  III,  524;  533  ;  Index,  "Taille." 
Walsh:  Moral  Damage  of  War  (1906).     (References  at  the  end 

of  each  chapter.) 
Weale:  Indiscreet  Letters  from  Peking  (1906). 
Jordan:    Imperial    Democracy    (1899),    Chapter:    "The    Captain 

Sleeps." 
Chittenden:  War  or  Peace  (1911),  59-63. 
Levi:  War  and  its  Consequences  (1881). 

Friedens-warte,  VII  (1905),  130-136.    (Trial  of  Kunert  at  Halle.) 
Westm.  Rev.,  157 :  237-54.    Bella,  Bella,  horrida  bella ! 
Tolstoi:  War  and  Peace  (1889). 
Photographic  History  of  the  Civil  War  (1911). 
Chipman :  The  Tragedy  of  Andersonville. 
Dudley:  And  This  is  War. 

Dunant:  Un  souvenir  de  Solferino  (2  ed.  1862). 
Sakurai:  Human  Bullets  (1908). 
Lusk:  War  Letters  of  W.  T.  Lusk  (1911). 
Schurz:  Reminiscences,  III,  132-137. 
Andrew  and  Bushnell :  The  Queen's  Daughters  in  India  (3  ed., 

1899). 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  LAW  ^5 


XVI.    THE  RESTRICTION  OF  FORCE  THROUGH  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  LAW. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Primitive  conditions;  force  universal. 

"The  state  of  nature  is  a  state  of  war." — (Hobbes.) 
(Cf.  Sumner:  War.) 

B.  The  limitation  of  force  through — 

I.  The  conception  of  law. 

a.  The  law  of  might.     Faustrecht.     Law  of  primitive 

man. 
Implies  only  as  much  respect  for  another's  rights 
as  he  can  command.    Cannibalism.    "An  eye  for 
an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth." 

b.  Supernatural  law :   divine  law.     Law  of  clans   and 

tribes. 
As    there    were    many    gods,    this    law    implied    a 
hatred  of  all  other  peoples  and  their  laws,  and 
a  duty  to  extirpate  them.    Israel. 
Theory  of  divine  origin  of  law  prevailed  chiefly  in 
the   tribal   and   earlier  national   periods,   during 
which  patriarchal  and  monarchical  governments 
were  the   rule.     Ordeal,   trial  by  battle,   blood- 
feud,  vendetta. 
The  theory  developed  the  conception  of  the  divine 
right  of  kings.    There  was,  however,  this  differ- 
ence that  (at  least  in  the  west),  all  kings  were 
supposed  to  be  ruling  by  the  will  of  one  and  the 
same  God,  instead  of  one  of  several  gods  as  had 
been  the  case. 
-^-c.  Natural  law:  inherent  in  Nature. 
C        Assumes  a  common  basis  for  all  true  law,  hence 
tends  to  lessen  antipathies  between  peoples  and 
to  weaken  supernatural  law  and  monarchy. 
Never  generally  accepted  (i.e.,  by  all  classes). 
d.  Positive  law:  man-made.     (Voluntary  or  customary 
law.) 
Implies  just  as  much  respect  for  the  laws  and  rights 
of  other  nations  as  we  respect  the  men  of 
that  nation. 
Law  made  by  the  ruler:  monarchy. 
Law  made  by  the  people:  democracy.     (This 
form  has  been  spreading  for  a  century  and  a 
quarter.) 


76  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

Acquaintance  with  other  peoples  tends  to  increase 
respect  for  their  laws ;  in  other  words,  democracy 
tends  to  diminish  wars  and  to  increase  the  power 
of  law. 
2.  The  evolution  of  states. 

a.  Stages.     Regions  of  varying  sizes  fall  under  law  of 

some  kind  and  thus  become  political  units.  These 
units  have  peace  within  their  bounds,  but  are  at 
war  with  the  neighboring  units.  Political  units 
join  to  form  larger  units  (clans,  tribes,  confed- 
erations, nations).  Thus  a  single  form  of  law 
governs  an  increasing  area,  and  the  old  conflicts 
between  the  parts  of  this  new  unit  disappear. 

b.  Result :  two  kinds  of  law : 

X.  National  law :  suppresses  force  and  governs  with- 
in any  particular  political  unit.    Has  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  unit. 
Law  is  constantly  being  perfected. 

Revolt  against  the  law  becomes  civil  war. 
y.  International  law:  governs  the  relations  of  na- 
tions. 
In  times  of  peace.     (Lecture  XIX.) 
In  times  of  war :  force  is  put  under  restrictions. 

(Mainly  since  1850.    Lecture  XX.) 
Lacks  an  effective  sanction. 

References 

Pollock:  First  Book  of  Jurisprudence,  chap.  i. 

Holland:  Elements  of  Jurisprudence  (10  ed.  1906),  chaps.  2,  3. 

Markby:  Elements  of  Law  (6  ed.  1905),  chaps,  i,  2. 

Korkunov:  General  Theory  of  Law  (1909),  Book  I. 

Terry:  Leading  Principles  of  Anglo-American  Law,  chap.  i. 

Carter:  History  of  English  Legal  Institutions  (1906). 

Sumner:  Folkways  (1907). 

Spencer:  Descriptive  Sociology  (1873-81),  passim. 

Sumner:  War.     (Yale  Review,  October,  1911.)     War  and  Other 

Essays  (1911). 
Holdsworth:  History  of  English  Law  (1903-9). 


LAW  AND  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  ^J 


XVII.     LAW  AND  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS. 
i^KrehhieV) 

A.  Ancient  times. 

1,  The  co-existence  of  states  was  not  a  recognized  principle; 

each  state  sought  to  subject  or  exterminate  all  other 
states.    Oriental  states  and  Roman  Empire. 
Thus  there  could  be  no  international  relations  in  the 
present  sense. 

2.  Greeks  admitted  the  principle  of  co-existing  states. 

The  Greek  city  states  all  represented  the  same  general 
culture  and  language. 

They  had  relations  properly  called  international. 

They  gradually  fell  to  quarreling  among  themselves  as 
did  their  neighbors  and  sought  to  subject  each 
other.  The  interference  of  Rome  put  an  end  to 
their  struggles  before  any  state  had  been  fully 
victorious. 

B.  Mediaeval  times. 

1.  The  Teutonic  migrations  broke  up  the  Roman  Empire 

and  substituted  a  number  of  tribal  units  independent 
of  each  other. 

2.  This  new  society  abandoned  the  ancient  conception  that 

states  could  not  co-exist. 
a.  The  influence  of  the  Christian  religion  and  the  church. 
h.  The  Teutonic  ideal  admitted  the  existence  of  clans 

and  tribes  side  by  side. 
c.  The  confusion  and  darkness  of  the  early  medieval 

period  obscured  the  differences  between  peoples. 

3.  Mediaeval  states  had  relatively  slight  relations. 

a.  Under  the  feudal  system  a  state  was  not  a  homogen- 
eous organization,  but  rather  a  union  of  feudal 
entities  held  together  by  the  personal  bond  of 
liege  homage.  It  was  these  feudal  entities,  as 
much  as  the  states  themselves,  that  had  relation- 
ships in  the  earlier  middle  ages. 

h.  In  this  period  there  was  no  such  thing  as  international 
law. 

C.  The  beginnings  of  international  relations  and  laws. 

I.  International  relations  in  the  modern  sense  began  to  ap- 
pear in  the  twelfth  century. 


78  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

a.  The  crusades  developed  a  sense  of  nationalism  among 

the  various  peoples  of  western  Europe. 

b.  The  feudal  system  began  to  yield  before  monarchical 

power. 

c.  The  Reformation  and  especially  the  religious  wars 

developed  the  sense  of  nationality  to  a  high  de- 
gree in  Europe. 

2.  In  this  period  states  as  such  steadily  increased  their  deal- 

ings with  one  another,  and  at  the  time  of  the  religious 
wars  carried  their  animosities  and  national  sentiments 
to  exaggeration. 

3.  Early  writers  on  international  relations. 

a.  Legnano.     Professor  of  Law  at  Bologna. 

"De  bello,  de  represaliis,  et  de  duello,"  1360. 

b.  Belli.     (ItaHan.) 

"De  re  militari  et  de  bello,"  1563. 

c.  Bruno.     (German.) 

"De  legationibus,"   1548. 

d.  Victoria.     (Spaniard.) 

"Reflectiones  theologicae,"  1557. 

e.  Ayala.     (Spaniard  living  in  the  Netherlands.) 

"De  jure  et  officiis  bellicis"  .  .  .   1582. 
/.  Suarez.     (Spanish  Jesuit  at  Coimbra,  Portugal.) 

"Tractatus  de  legibus  et  de  legislatore,"  1612. 
g.  Gentilis.      (ItaHan.) 

"De  legationibus,"  1585. 
"Commentationes  de  jure  belli,"  1586-9. 
"De  jure  belli  libri  tres,"   1598. 
"Advocatio  Hispanica,"  1613. 
D.  The  modern  period. 

I.  National  consciousness  and  international  antipathies  were 
fully  developed  by  the  time  of  the  Thirty  Years  War, 
which  involved  practically  all  the  nations  of  western 
Europe. 

a.  The  consequence  of  this  bitter  period  was  an  over- 

emphasis on  national  independence ;  the  absolute 
independence  of  a  state  from  every  other. 

b.  This    condition    arose    in    a    monarchical    age ;    and 

monarchs  were  in  a  position  to  exploit  national 
antipathies  to  their  own  advantage. 
Government  by  the  people  has  replaced  monarchy; 
and  with  the  advent  of  the  doctrines  of  equality 
among  men,  the  bitterness  is  passing  out  of  na- 
tional hatreds,  which  are  coming  more  and  more 
to  be  commercial  rivalries.  The  growth  of  demo- 
cratic principles  should  operate  to  bring  nations 
closer  together. 


LAW  AND  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  79 

2.  International  law  developed  in  this  age.    Schools  of  inter- 

national law  and  their  representatives. 
a.  Hugo  Grotius,  (1583-1635).    "Father  of  the  Law  of 
Nations." 
His  youth:  a  precocious  child. 
Political    career,   arrest,    imprisonment,    residence 

abroad. 
"De  jure  belli  ac  pacis  libri  tres."     1625.     (Engl, 
transl.    Old  South  Leaflets,  Vol.  5,  No.  loi,  pp. 
1-24.) 
This  work  recognizes  both — 

Customary  or  voluntary  law.     (Positive  law.) 
Natural  law :  This  is  held  to  be  most  important, 
hence :  Jus  gentium,  i.  e.,  law  of  nations. 
h.  After  Grotius. 

Zouche,  1 590- 1 660.  (Englishman.) 
'Turis  et  iudicii  fecialis,  sive  iuris  inter  gentes,  el 
qaestionum  de  eodem  explicatio"  (Edited  by  Hol- 
land; transl.  by  Brierly). 
Emphasizes  voluntary  international  law  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  natural  law  of  Grotius.  Hence :  Jus 
inter  gentes,  i.  e.,  international  law. 

3.  Three  schools  of  the  law  of  nations. 

a.  Naturalists :  accept  natural  law. 

Pufendorf  (at  Heidelberg),  1632-1694. 

Christian  Thomasius,  1655-1728.     (German.) 

Francis   Hutcheson.      (English.) 

Thomas  Rutherford.     (English.) 

Jean  Barbeyrac,  1674-1744. 

Jean  Jacques  Burlamaqui,  1694-1748. 

b.  Positivists :  deny  natural  law. 

Rachel.     (German.) 

Textor.     (German.) 

Bynkershoek,   1673- 1 743.      (Dutchman.) 

J.  J.  Moser,  1701-1785.     (German.) 

G.  F.  von  Martens,  1756-1801.     (German.) 

c.  Grotians :  Recognize  natural  and  voluntary  law. 

Christian  Wolff,  1679-1754.     (German.) 
Emerich  de  Vattel.     1714-1767.     (Swiss.) 

4.  Historical  development. 

a.  Naturalists  and  Grotians  predominate  to  and  through 

French  Revolution. 

b.  Nineteenth  century  sees  triumph  of  positivists. 

Kliiber,  1836.     Positivist  of  the  older  type. 
Wheaton,  1836.     Grotian. 
Manning,  1839.    Grotian. 


8o  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

Heffter,  1844.     Positivist  of  the  older  type. 
PhilHmore,  1854.     Positivist  of  the  older  type. 
Twiss,  1861.    Positivist  of  the  older  type. 
Halleck,  1861   (American).    Positivist  of  old  type. 
Fiore,  1865.     Grotian. 
Bluntschli,  1867. 
True  positivists : 

Hartmann,  1874. 
Hall,  1880. 

Martens,  1885   (Russian). 
Holtzendorff,  1885. 
Oppenheim,  1905. 
5.  The  laws  to  which  nations   have  assented  will  be  con- 
sidered in  Lectures  XIX  and  XX. 
These    laws    have    tended    to    improve    the    relations 
'  of  nations  to  each  other,  and  to  remove  causes  of 

disputes. 
E.  Five  morals  that  can  de  deduced  from  the  development  of  the 
Law  of  Nations  to  date.    .(Oppenheim,  I,  73-76.) 

1.  A  law  of  nations  can  exist  only  if  there  is  an  equilibrum, 

a   balance   of   power,   between   the   members   of  the 
family  of  nations. 

2.  International   law  can   develop  progressively  only  when 

international  politics,  especially  intervention,  are  made 
on  the  basis  of  real  state  interests. 

3.  The  principle  of  nationality  is  of  such  force  that  it  is 

fruitless  to  try  to  stop  its  victory. 

4.  Every  progress  in  the  development  of  international  law 

wants  due  time  to  ripen. 

5.  The  progressive  developrrient  of  international  law  depends 

chiefly  upon  the  standard  of  public  morality  on  the 
one  hand,  and,  on  the  other,  upon  economic  interests. 

References 
Phillipson :  International  Law  and  Custom  of  Ancient  Greece  and 

Rome  (1911), 
Jacomet:  La  guerre  et  les  traites  (1909). 
Fiore:  Le  droit  Internationale  codifie  et  sa  sanction  juridique. 
Wilson:  International  Law  (5th  ed.  1911). 
Pollock :  The  Modern  Law  of  Nations  and  the  Prevention  of  War. 

Cambridge  Modern  History,  XII,  703-729. 
Nys:   The  Development  and   Formation   of   International  Law. 

American  Journal  of  International  Lazv,  January,  1912. 
Phillipson:   Two  Studies   in   International   Law    (1908). 
Consult  the  list  of  references  given  by 

Oppenheim:  International  Law,  I,  p.  44;  58. 

Scott :  Cases  on  International  Law,  xxiv.  Sec.  5. 


T 


PEACE  PROJECTS  OF  THE  PAST  8l 


XVIII.     PEACE  ADVOCATES  AND  PROJECTS  OF  THE 

PAST. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Christ:  The  Prince  of  Peace. 

"Peace  on  earth,  good  will  toward  men." 
The  Christian  ideal  of  peace  and  of  the  brotherhood  of  man, 
lacks  much  of  realization. 

B.  Peace  of  God  and  Truce  of  God  in  the  Middle  Ages  an  attempt 

to  put  some  limit  upon  perennial  war. 

C.  Religious  denominations. 

1.  The  Mennonites,  beginning  about  1534. 

2.  The  Quakers  or  Friends. 

George  Fox  (i  624-1691). 

Ann  Austin  and  Mary  Fisher  in  Massachusetts,  1656. 

Penn  in  Pennsylvania,  1682. 

3.  Exempted  from  military  service  in  the  colonies. 

Non-resistance  only  one  of  their  tenets. 

D.  Individual  peace  advocates  and  their  projects. 

1.  Henry  IV  of  France  (i 589-1610).     Sully. 

"The  Great  Design."    (Engl.  ed.  by  Mead,  1909.) 
Proposed  a  hegemony  subject  to   France   against  the 

Hapsburg  power;  therefore  not  a  disinterested 

peace  project. 
(Cf.  Imperial  and  papal  schemes  of  hegemony.) 

2.  Emeric  Cruce  (about  1590-1648). 

"Le  Nouveau  Cynee,"  1623. 

"The  New  Cyneas,"  (Balch,  1909). 

Proposes  an  international  council  of  all  nations  with 

headquarters  at  Venice  to  settle  all  differences 

and  preserve  the  peace. 

3.  William  Penn  (1644-1718). 

"Essay  towards  the  Present  and  Future  Peace  of  Europe 
by  the  Establishment  of  an  European  Dyet,  Par- 
liament, or  Estates."    1693-4.    (Old  South  Leaf- 
lets, IV,  No.  75.) 
Justice  rather  than  war. 

Justice  is  the  fruit  of  a  proper  government;  hence 
a  central  body  is  desirable — 

to  decide  all  cases  not  otherwise  disposed  of. 
to  compel  submittance  of  such  cases, 
to  enforce  compliance  with  decisions. 
Language :  Latin  or  French. 


82  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

Penn's  pacific  dealings  with  the  Indians  of  Pennsyl- 
vania was  an  object  lesson  that  was  more  effective 
than  his  publications. 

4.  Abbe  de  Saint-Pierre  (1658-1743). 

"Abrege  du  pro  jet  de  paix  perpetuelle  invente  par  le  roi 

Henri  le  Grand  .  .  ."     1713. 
(Extract  in  Darby,  International  Tribunals,  7if). 
The  first  "coherent"  proposal  for  an  international 

tribunal  (Richet,  247). 
Exercised  an  influence  toward  the  creation  of  Holy 

Alliance. 
[Pufendorf  (1632-1694). 

"De  statu  imperii  Germanici"  contains  a  scheme  of 

federation.] 

5.  Rousseau,  J.  J.  (1712-1778.) 

"Extrait  du  projet  de  paix  perpetuelle  de  M.  L'Abbe 

de  Saint-Pierre."     (Darby,  105.) 
"Jugement  sur  la  Paix  Perpetuelle."     (Darby,  117.) 

6.  Benjamin  Franklin  (1706-1790). 

"On  War  and  Peace."  1788.  (Old  South  Leaflets, 
VI,  162.) 

7.  Immanuel  Kant  (1724-1804). 

"Der  Ewige  Friede."     1798. 

"On  Perpetual  Peace."  (Engl,  transl.  Hastie:  Kant's 
Philosophy  of  Law,  224-6.) 

8.  Comte  de  Saint-Simon. 

"Reorganisation  de  la  societe  europeenne  .  .  ."     1814. 

9.  Other  peace  advocates:  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Rheinfels, 

Duke   Charles   of   Lorraine,   John    Sellers,   Leibnitz, 
Fenelon,    Bentham,    Chateaubriand,    Abbe    Gregoire, 
James  Mill,  John  Stuart  Mill,  etc. 
E.  Peace  societies. 

1.  New  York  Peace  Society,  181 5.     About  30  members. 

David  Low  Dodge  (1774- 1852)  first  president. 
How  Dodge  came  to  be  a  peace  advocate. 
"The  Mediator's  Kingdom  not  of  this  World."  1809. 
Opposed  by  Noah  Worcester. 

2.  Massachusetts  Peace  Society,  1816. 

Noah  Worcester  and  William  Ellery  Channing. 
Worcester:  "Solemn  Review  of  the  Custom  of  War." 
1814. 
Edited:  "The  Friend  of  Peace." 

3.  The  Peace  Society  (English),  1816. 

4.  The  American  Peace  Society,  1828.    William  Ladd. 

A  union  of  state  and  local  societies. 


T 


PEACE  PROJECTS  OF  THE  PAST  83 

5.  European  continental  peace  societies. 

The  first  was  founded  at  Geneva,  1828. 
The  second  at  Paris,  1841. 

6.  Peace  societies  today  (1910).     About  160  societies  with 

many  branches. 
England,  22  societies  with  about  45  branches. 
France,  36  societies,  some  of  which  have  as  many  as 

40  branches. 
Germany,  3  societies  with  95  branches. 
Austria,  8;  Belgium,  3;  Hungary,  2;  Italy,  55;  Nor- 
way, 2 ;  Portugal,  3  ;  Russia,  2 ;  Spain,  2 ;  Sweden, 
8;  United  States,  17;  Canada,  i ;  South  American 
States,  7 ;  Australia,  4 ;  Japan,  2 ;  Denmark,  2, 
with  37  branches ;  Persia,  a  society  is  projected. 
(For  a  list  of  peace  societies  see  Annual  re  du  mouvement 
pacifiste,  1910,  and  The  Peace  Year-Book,  191 1.) 
F.  International  peace  congresses.    Organizers:  Count  de  Sellon 
and  Auguste   Couvreur.     Bastiat.      (List  of  congresses: 
"Annuaire  de  la  Vie  Internationale,"  1908,  647.) 

1.  London,  1843. 

2.  Brussels,  1848.     (Elihu  Burritt's  part.) 

3.  Paris,   1849:  Victor  Hugo,  President;  Richard  Cobden, 

Vice-President. 

4.  Frankfurt,  1850. 

5.  London,  185 1. 

6.  Edinburgh,  1853. 
Interrupted  by  wars. 

Geneva,    1867;   Paris,    1878;   Brussels,    1882;   Paris,    1889. 
Since  1889  they  have  practically  met  annually.     Permanent 
headquarters  established  at  Berne  in  1891 :  "Perma- 
nent International  Bureau  of  Peace." 
List  of  congresses  since   1889. 

I  St  Congress,  Paris,  1889. 

2nd  Congress,  London,  1890. 

3rd  Congress,  Rome,  1891. 

4th  Congress,  Berne,   1892. 

5th  Congress,  Chicago,  1.893. 

6th  Congress,  Antwerp,  1894. 

7th  Congress,  Budapest,  1896. 

8th  Congress,  Hamburg,  1897. 

General  Congress,  Turin,  1898. 

General  Congress,  Berne,  1899. 

9th  Congress,  Paris,  1900. 

loth  Congress,  Glasgow,  1901. 

nth  Congress,  Monaco,  1902. 


84  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION  J 

I 

1 2th   Congress,   Rouen   and   Havre,   September   22-27, 

1903. 
13th  Congress,  Boston,  October  3-8,  1904. 
14th  Congress,  Lucerne,  September  19-23,  1905. 
15th  Congress,  Milan,  September  15-23,  1906. 
i6th  Congress,  Munich,  September  9-14,  1907. 
17th  Congress,  London,  July  27- August  i,  1908. 
General  Assembly,  Berne,  October  8-9,  1909. 
i8th  Congress,  Stockholm,  August  1-5,  1910. 
General  Assembly,  September  26,  191 1. 
G.  Further   development  of  the  principles   of  peace  treated   in 

Lecture  XXL 
H.  Other  agencies  working  for  peace,  though  indirectly.     (Lec- 
tures XXXII-XXXIV.) 

References 

(In  addition  to  those  mentioned  in  the  syllabus.) 

Kant:  Perpetual  Peace  (Transl.  by  Trueblood,  53  pp.)- 

Richet:  Le  passe  de  la  guerre  .  .  .   (1907),  243f. 

Fried:  Handbuch  der  Friedensbewegung  (1911). 

Bloch:  Der  Krieg  (1899)  V,  1-197. 

Loewenthal:  Geschichte  der  Friedensbewegung   (1907). 

Darby:  International  Tribunals  (1904). 

Channing:  Discourses  on  War  (new  ed.  1903). 

Dodge:  War  Inconsistent  with  the  Religion  of  Jesus  Christ  (new 

ed.  1905). 
Gill:  Evolution  of  the  Peace  Movement. 
Annuaire  de  la  Vie  Internationale  (1908-9),  passim. 
Peace  Year-Book,  1910.    191 1. 
Evans:  Sir  Randall  Cremer  (1910). 
La  Fontaine:  BibHographie  de  la  paix  (1904),  257! 
Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire  de  France,  Due  de  Sully.    Ser. 

2,  vol.  3,  422-436  (The  Great  Design). 
Bayet:  Les  ecrivains  politiques  du  XVIII  siecle   (1904),  16-22 

Projet  de  .  .  .  I'abbe  de  Saint-Pierre). 
Rousseau:    Oeuvres    completes    (Musset-Pathay),    V,    405-459 

(Extrait  du  projet  .  .  .  de  I'abbe  de  Saint-Pierre). 
Hastie:  Kant's  Philosophy  of  Law,  224-226   (Perpetual  Peace 

and  a  Permanent  Congress  of  Nations). 
Boyle:  History  of  Peace. 
Geer:  The  Beginning  of  the  Peace  Movement  [Peace  and  Truce 

of  God].    Hartford  Seminary  Record,  XXI,  227-243. 
Fried:    Die    moderne    Friedensbewegung    in    Deutschland    und 

Frankreich  (1908). 
Diotallevi:  Appunti  Storici  sul  Movimento  Pacifista  nel  Secolo 

XIX.     (Italian  Peace  Society.) 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  IN  TIME  OF  PEACE  8^ 


XIX.      LAWS    GOVERNING    INTERNATIONAL    RELA- 
TIONS IN  TIME  OF  PEACE. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Since  the  end  of  the  Middle  Age  the  dealings  of  nations  with 

each  other  have  steadily  been  increasing. 
To  begin  with  there  were  no  rules  or  methods  governing 
international  relations.  Expediency,  however,  dic- 
tated a  large  number  of  rules,  or  customs,  the  general 
acceptance  of  which  has  contributed  much  to  the  ease 
and  smoothness  with  which  international  affairs  are 
dispatched.  These  rules,  or  agreements,  form  the 
substance  of  international  law ;  they  are  usually  made 
by  treaty. 

B.  International  law  has  made  provisions  relating  to — 

1.  Types  of  states: 

Sovereign  states,  federation  of  states,  vassal  states, 
protected  states,  neutral  states  (Switzerland,  Bel- 
gium, Luxemburg,  and  formerly  Congo  Free 
State).    The  Papacy. 

2.  Change  in  status  of  states,  in  territory  or  government. 

3.  Rank  and  precedence  of  states. 

States  with  royal  honors,  and  states  without. 

States    rank   alphabetically   according   to   their   French 

names  within  each  group. 
Ceremonies  recognizing  the  dignity  of  states. 

4.  Intervention  in  another  state. 

By  right,  in  default  of  right,  in  the  interests  of  humanity. 
The  Monroe  Doctrine  not  within  the  scope  of  interna- 
tional law. 

5.  ResponsibiHty  of  states  for  acts  of  officials  or  citizens. 

6.  Territory  of  a  state. 

Boundaries,  riparian  rights,  navigation  of  international 
rivers,  land-locked  seas,  canals,  maritime  belt, 
territoriality  of  gulfs,  bays  and  straits,  modes  of 
acquiring  territory,  modes  of  losing  territory. 

7.  The  open  sea. 

Maritime  sovereignty  was  formerly  the  rule. 

Portuguese  and  Spanish  main ;  England's  claims  to 
sovereignity  in  the  Channel. 
Open  sea  became  the  rule  by  nineteenth  century. 
The  marine  league. 


86  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

Jurisdiction  on  the  high  seas :  rules  of  traffic,  ship's 
papers,  right  of  visit,  search,  and  arrest,  coUision, 
assistance,  salvage. 

Piracy,  fishing,  cables. 

8.  Individuals. 

Nationality,  naturalization,  expatriation,  right  of  asylum, 
exclusion  of  foreigners,  expulsion  of  foreigners, 
extradition  (not,  however,  of  political  criminals). 

Individual  claims  against  other  states  or  their  citizens. 
Contract  debts. 

9.  Diplomatic  agents. 

Classes  of  agents,  functions  and  entering  upon  them, 
position,  inviolability,  extraterritoriality,  servants, 
termination  of  mission. 

10.  Consular  agents. 

Appointment,  functions,  position  and  privileges  (in  non- 
Christian  states),  termination  of  functions. 

11.  Special  agents  abroad. 

Armed  forces  abroad  in  time  of  peace. 
Men-of-war  in  foreign  waters. 

Non-diplomatic  or  non-consular  agents,  commissions. 
•   Officials :  postal,  telegraph,  commercial,  etc. 

12.  International   transactions. 

Negotiations,  declarations,  congresses,  conferences. 

Courts  of  arbitration. 

Treaties :    framing,    ratification,    dissolution,    voidance, 

cancellation,  renewal,  interpretation. 
Alliances.    Unions  (for  administrative  purposes :  postal). 

References 

Consult  works  on  International  Law. 

Conventions  for  the  Unification  of  Certain  Rules  of  Law  respect- 
ing Collisions,  Assistance  and  Salvage  at  Sea.  Signed  at 
Brussels,  September  23,  1910.  (Published  by  the  British 
Foreign  Office.) 

Moulin :  La  doctrine  de  Drago. 

Meili  und  Mamelok:  Das  internationale  Privat-  und  Zivilprozess- 
recht  auf  Grund  der  Haager  Conventionen. 

Wehberg:   Ein   internationaler  Gerichtshof   fiir   Privatklagen. 


INTERNATIONAL  RULES  FOR  WAR  87 


XX.     INTERNATIONAL  RULES  FOR  WAR. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Principal  treaties  and  international  agreements   which  have 
placed  restrictions  upon  warfare. 

1.  Declaration  of  Paris,  1856. 

(Martens:  Recueil  de  Traites,  XV,  y6y.) 
Scott:  Texts  of  the  Peace  Conferences,  349. 

2.  Francis  Lieber  Code,  1863. 

(Cong.  Doc.  1607,  No.  100.) 
Scott :  Texts,  350-376. 

3.  Geneva  Convention,  1864.     (1866.) 

(Martens:  Recueil  de  Traites,  XVIII,  607.) 
Scott:  Texts,  376-381. 

4.  Declaration  of  St.  Petersburg,  1868. 

(Martens:  Recueil  de  Traites,  XVIII,  445.) 

Scott:  Texts,  381-382. 

[Project  of  an  international  declaration  concerning  the 
laws  and  customs  of  war,  adopted  by  the  Con- 
ference of  Brussels,  August  27,  1874.  Scott: 
Texts,  382-389.] 

[Laws  of  war  on  land.  Recommended  for  adoption  by 
the  Institute  of  International  Law  at  its  session 
in  Oxford,  September  9,  1880.  Scott:  Texts, 
389-400.] 

5.  Hague  Peace  Conference,  1899. 

(Martens,  2d  ser.  XXVI,  920.) 
Scott:  Texts,  1-92. 

6.  Convention  regarding  hospital  ships  (The  Hague),  1904. 

Scott:  Texts,  400-402. 

7.  Geneva  convention  for  the  amelioration  of  the  condition 

of  the  sick  and  wounded  of  armies  in  the  field,  1906. 
Scott :  Texts,  402-410. 

8.  The  Second  Hague  Conference,   1907. 

Scott:  Texts,  93-334. 

9.  Declaration  of  London,  1909. 

U.  S.  Naval  War  College :  Intern.  Law  Topics,  1909. 

This  declaration  will  presumably  be  the  basis  for  deci- 
sions of  the  Prize  Court  established  at  the  Second 
Hague  Conference,  1907.  Up  to  the  present  this 
declaration  has  not  been  generally  ratified  and  is, 
therefore,  not  law  in  the  same  sense  as  the  other 
agreements  here  listed. 


-HMRiCa—^— ■  \\\mm 


88  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

B.  Warfare  on  Land. 

These  agreements  concern  only  the  powers  which  have  ac- 
cepted them.     The  dates  in  parentheses  indicate  the 
document  in  the  list  above  containing  the  provision. 
I.  Rules  relating  to  arms  and  armor. 

1.  Projectiles  of  weight  below  400  grams  which  are  explo- 

sive or  inflammable  are  prohibited  (1868). 

2.  Prohibitions  of  1899  and  1907. 

a.  Using  implements  which  render  death  inevitable  or 

needlessly  aggravate  suffering. 

b.  Poison  on  projectiles,  in  water  or  food. 

c.  Glass,  irregularly  shaped  iron,  nails,  chain-shot,  cross- 

bar-shot, red-hot  balls  and  the  like. 

d.  Expanding  bullets,  or  those  which  flatten  easily  in 

the  body.      (Mushroom  bullets.) 

e.  Launching  projectiles  or  explosives  from  balloons. 

The   powers   were   more   cautious   in   signing  this 
agreement  in  1907  than  in  1899     Italy  and  Turkey 
did  not  sign  in  1907. 
/.  Using  projectiles   diffusing   deleterious   or   asphyxi- 
ating gas. 
IL  Rules  regulating  methods  of  fighting. 

1.  Desertion  (1863). 

a.  Deserters  of  the  army  punished  by  death. 

b.  Deserters  of  one  army  registered  in  the  enemy's  army 

may  be  put  to  death  for  desertion  of  their  own 
army,  by  officials  of  the  deserted  force. 

2.  Espionage. 

a.  Spies  may  be  hung  whether  they  succeed  in  getting 

information  or  not  (1863). 

b.  Spy  taken  in  act,  can  not  be  punished  without  pre- 

vious trial   (1899,  1907). 

c.  A  spy  after  joining  army  to  which  he  belongs  and 

subsequently  captured  by  the  enemy  is  treated 
as  a  prisoner  of  war,  and  incurs  no  responsibility 
for  his  previous  acts  of  espionage  (1899,  1907). 

d.  Following  are  not  considered  spies : 

Soldiers  and  civilians  carrying  out  their  mission 
openly  and  delivering  despatches  to  their  own 
army  or  to  enemy's  army  (1899-1907). 

3.  Armistice  (1863). 

a.  Must  be  agreed  upon  in  writing  by  both  parties. 

b.  If  conditions,  they  must  be  clearly  expressed. 

c.  May  be  general,  for  the  whole  army;  or  special,  for 

certain  troops,  etc. 

d.  Does  not  mean  peace  but  suspension  of  operations. 


INTERNATIONAL  RULES  FOR  WAR  89 

e.  When  broken  by  one  party,  the  other  party  under  no 

obligation  to  observe  it. 

f.  If  armistice  is  ended  the  other  side  must  be  warned. 

(1899.) 

g.  An  armistice  must  be  officially  announced   (1899). 
h.  Hostilities  must  be  suspended  immediately  or  at  a 

■  fixed  date  (1899,  1907). 

4.  Treachery, 

a.  Traitors  are  put  to  death  (1863). 
h.  A  citizen  serving  as  a  guide  against  his  own  country 
is  a  traitor  and  may  be  treated  as  such  (1863). 

c.  All   unauthorized    and    secret   communications    with 

the  enemy  are  considered  treasonable. 

d.  An  envoy  taking  advantage  of  his  position  under  a 

flag  of  truce  is  considered  to  have  committed  an 
act  of  treachery  (1899,  1907). 

e.  Feigned  surrender  is  treachery  (Oppenheim,  p.  166). 
/.  Assassination  is  treachery  (Oppenheim.  p.  117). 

g.  Treacherous  requests  for  quarter  or  feigning  sick- 
ness and  wounds  are  treated  as  treachery. 

5.  Ruses. 

a.  The  use  of  the  enemy's  national  flag  for  the  purpose 
of  deceiving  the  enemy  in  battle  is  an  act  of  per- 
fidy which  forfeits  all  claim  to  protection  of  the 
laws  of  war  (1863). 

h.  Ruses  of  war  and  employment  of  methods  necessary 
to  obtain  information  about  the  enemy  and  the 
country  are  considered  allowable  (1899). 

c.  Feigned  signals  and  bugle  calls  can  be  ordered,  watch 
words  of  the  enemy  may  be  used  (Oppenheim, 
p.  165). 

6.  Cartels. 

a.  An  exchange  of  prisoners  of  war  is  an  act  of  con- 
venience to  both  belligerents.  If  no  general  car- 
tel has  been  concluded,  it  cannot  be  demanded 
by  either  of  them  (1863).  A  cartel  is  voidable 
as  soon  as  either  party  has  violated  it  (1863). 

7.  Outlawry. 

o.  Religion  and  morality  to  be  respected  and  protected 
against  outlawry  (1863). 

h.  Armed  prowlers  who  rob,  destroy  bridges,  roads, 
canals,  telegraphs,  and  commit  outlawry  in  gen- 
eral, are  not  allowed  the  privileges  of  prisoners 
of  war  (1863). 

c.  All  wanton  violence  committed  against  persons  and 
property  shall  be  punished  by  death   (1863). 


90  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL   CONCILIATION 

8.  Flags  of  truce. 

a.  Firing  is  not  required  to  cease  on  appearance  of  a 

flag  of  truce  in  battle  (1863). 

b.  Bearer  of  a  flag  of  truce  cannot  insist  upon  being  ad- 

mitted (1863,  1899,  1907). 

c.  If  bearer  of  flag  of  truce  abuse  the  trust  he  may  be 

considered  a  spy  (1863,  1899,  1907). 

d.  Bearer  of  flag  of  truce  has   right  to   inviolability 

(1899,  1907). 

9.  Limitations  on  cruelty. 

a.  Sick    or    disabled    combatants    must    not   be    killed 

(1899). 

b.  No  inhuman  treatment  of  prisoners  of  war   (1899, 

1907). 

c.  Combatants  who  surrender  shall  not  be  killed  (1899, 

1907). 

d.  To  declare  that  no  quarter  will  be  given  is  pro- 

hibited (1899,  1907). 

e.  Prisoners  of  war  shall  not  be  tortured  for  information 

(1863). 
/.  No  arms  or  means  to  be  used  which  render  death  in- 
evitable or  cause  needless  suflFering  (1899,  1907) 
(See  Section  I  above). 

III.  Rules  governing  conduct  towards  combatants. 

1.  Military  necessity  admits  of  all  direct  destruction  of  life 

or  limb  of  armed  enemies  and  of  other  persons  whose 
destruction  is  incidentally  unavoidable  in  the  armed 
contests  of  war  (1863). 

2.  Retaliation,  never  as  revenge,  but  only  as  means  of  pro- 

tective retribution  (1863). 

3.  Soldiers  not  in  disguise  who  are  in  the  zone  of  hostile 

operations  of  the  army  are  not  considered  spies 
(1899,  1907). 

IV.  Rules  governing  conduct  towards  non-combatants. 

1.  The  persons  of  the  inhaWtants,  especially  those  of  women, 

shall  be  protected  (1863). 

2.  Subjects  of  the  enemy  cannot  be  forced  into  the  service 

of  the  victorious  government,  until  after  a  complete 
conquest  of  the  country  (1863). 

3.  Non-combatants  in  case  of  capture  by  the  enemy  can  be 

treated  as  prisoners  of  war  (1899,  1907). 

4.  Inhabitants  cannot  be  forced  to  render  services  except  for 

needs  of  army  of  occupation,  against  their  own  coun- 
try. Services  shall  be  in  proportion  to  the  resources 
of  the  country  (1899,  1907). 


INTERNATIONAI,   RUI.l'.S   KOK   WAK  QI 

V.  Rules  for  prisoners  of  war. 

1.  A  prisoner  of  war  is  a  public  eiiciny,  attached  to  the  hos- 

tile army  for  active  aid,  who  has  fallen  into  hands  of 
the  captor,  by  individual  surrender  or  by  cajMtulation. 
All  enemies  who  have  thrown  away  their  arms  and 
ask  for  quarter,  are  prisoners  of  war  (1863). 

2.  A  prisoner  of  war  is  subject  to  no  punishment. 

3.  A  prisoner  of  war  is  answerable  for  his  crimes  committed 

apainst  the  captor's  army  or  people.  All  prisoners 
are  liable  to  infliction  of  any  retaliatory  measures 
(1863). 

4.  Prisoners  of  war  are  prisoners  of  the  government,  and  not 

the  captor,  and  are  released  by  the  j^ovcrnment  itself 
(1863,  1899,  1907)- 

5.  A  prisoner  of  war  who  escapes  may  be  shot  (1863). 

6.  Personal   belonpinji^s   of   prisoners   of    war   remain   their 

property  (1899). 

7.  Prisoners  can  only  be  confined  as  an  indispensable  meas- 

ure of  safety  (1899,  1907)- 

8.  Tasks  assij^ned  prisoners  shall  not  be  excessive  and  shall 

have  nothing  to  do  with  military  operations  (1899, 
1907). 

9.  Prisoners  of  war  shall  be  treated  on  same  footing  in  re- 

gard to  food,  quarters,  clothing,  as  the  troops  of  the 
go>^ernment  cajjturing  them  (1899,  1907). 
10.  Every  prisoner  is  required  to  give  his  true  name  and  rank. 
VI.  Rules  governing  enemy's  property. 

1.  Public  property. 

a.  A  victorious  army  appropriates  all  public  money  and 

public  property  until  further  directed  by  the 
government  (1863). 

b.  Churches,  school  houses,  hospitals,  are  not  considered 

l)ublic  property,  but  may  be  taxed  or  used  when 
public  service  may  require  it  (1863,  1899). 

c.  Classical  works  of  art,  libraries,  precious  instruments, 

scientific  collections,  etc.,  must  be  saved  without 
injury  and  must  be  kept  in  fortified  places  (1863, 
1899,  T907). 

d.  All  ai)pliances  for  the  transmission  of  news  may  be 

seized  but  nuist  be  restored  or  compensation 
made  for  them  when  peace  is  made  (1899,  1907). 

2.  Private  property. 

a.  Private  property  can  be  seized  only  through  miHtar> 

necessity. 

b.  Money  and  other  valuables  on  person  of  a  prisoner 

are  regarded  as  i)rivatc  i)roperty  (1863). 

c.  Private  property  cannot  be  confiscated  (1899,  1907). 

d.  Pillage  prohibited  (1899,  1907). 


92  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

VII.  Treatment  of  dead  and  wounded. 

1.  Every  captured  wounded  enemy  shall  be  medically  treated 

according  to  the  medical  ability  of  the  staff  (1863). 

2.  Hospitals  are  designated  by  yellow  flags  so  enemy  may 

avoid  firing  on  them  (1863).     Red  Cross  adopted  as 
designation  in  1864. 

3.  Collection  of  sick  and  wounded  aiter  the  battle  without 

distinction  of  parties  (1864). 

4.  Hospital  corps  and  medical  staff  are  neutral  (1864). 

5.  Hospitals    are    neutral    unless    held    by    military    force 

(1864). 

6.  Dead  bodies  shall,  if  possible,  be  buried. 

7.  Dead  bodies  shall  not  be  disgracefully  treated. 

(Hague  Conference,  1907,  resolved  to  approve  the  above 
rules  as  adopted  by  the  Geneva  Convention,  1864). 
C.  Warfare  at  sea. 

1.  Status  of  vessels. 

Privateering  abolished   (1856). 

Merchant  ships  on  high  seas,  ignorant  of  hostilities,  can- 
not be  confiscated  (1907). 

A  vessel  may  not  fly  any  flag  other  than  her  own  to  avoid 
attack. 

It  is  prohibited  to  attack  or  sink  enemy's  vessels  which 
have  hauled  down  their  flags  as  a  sign  of  sur- 
render. 

It  is  forbidden  to  capture  vessels  used  exclusively  for 
fishing. 

2.  Cargo. 

Neutral  flag  covers  enemy's  goods  except  contraband  of 

war  (1856). 
Neutral  goods  (contraband  excepted)  cannot  be  confis- 
cated even   when    sailing    under    enemy's    flasr 
(1856). 

3.  Blockades. 

A  blockade  must  be  effective  to  be  binding  (1856). 
Any  vessel  breaking  through  the  blockade  cannot  be 
touched. 

4.  Hospital  ships  and  the  wounded   (1907). 

Attack  or  seizure  of  hospital  ships  is  forbidden. 

It  is  forbidden  to  use  hospital  ships  for  any  other  pur- 
pose. 

It  is  forbidden  to  capture  neutral  merchantmen,  yachts 
or  vessels  as  a  penalty  for  having,  or  taking 
on  board  sick,  wounded,  or  shipwrecked  com- 
batants. 


INTERNATIONAL  RULES  FOR  WAR  93 

Sick-wards  must  be  spared  as  far  as  possible  in  case  of 
a  fight  on  board  a  warship. 

The  reHgious,  medical  and  hospital  staff  of  any  captured 
ship  is  inviolable. 

It  is  forbidden  to  bury  or  cremate  the  dead  without  care- 
ful examination  of  the  corpse. 

Soldiers  or  sailors  taken  on  board  when  sick  or  wounded, 
shall  be  respected  and  looked  after  by  the  captors, 
to  whatever  force  they  belong. 

5.  Submarine  explosives. 

To  lay  unanchored,  automatic  contact  mines,  except 
where  they  are  so  constructed 'as  to  become  harm- 
less one  hour  after  the  person  who  laid  them 
ceases  to  control  them,  is  forbidden ;  likewise  is 
it  forbidden  to  lay  those  which  do  not  become 
harmless  as  soon  as  they  break  from  their 
moorings. 

It  is  forbidden  to  use  torpedoes  which  do  not  become 
harmless  when  they  have  missed  their  mark. 

6.  Bombardments. 

It  is  forbidden  to  bombard  undefended  towns,  ports,  etc., 
except  after  due  notice. 

7.  Contraband.      (Declaration   of  London,    1909.) 

Up  to  the  present  time  commerce  has  suffered  in  war 
from  uncertainty  as  to  what  constituted  contra- 
band. The  Declaration  of  London  aims  to  remedy 
this  in  some  measure. 

a.  Articles  which  are  absolute  contraband.  (Article  22.) 
(i)   Arms  of  all  kinds. 

(2)  Projectiles,  charges  and  cartridges  of  all  kinds 

and  their  unassembled,  distinctive  parts. 

(3)  Powder  and  explosives  especially  adapted  for 

use  in  war. 

(4)  Gun  carriages,  caissons,  limbers,  military  wag- 

ons, field  forges,  and  their  unassembled,  dis- 
tinctive parts. 

(5)  Clothing    and    equipment    of    a    distinctively 

military  character. 

(6)  All  kinds  of  harness  of  a  distinctively  military 

character. 

(7)  Saddle,  draught  and  pack  animals  suitable  for 

use  in  war. 

(8)  Articles  of  camp  equipment. 

(9)  Armor  plate. 

(10)   Warships    and   boats    and   their    unassembled 
parts  suitable  for  use  only  in  a  vessel  of  war. 


iOMLa 


94  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

(II )   Implements   and   apparatus   made   exclusively 
for  the  manufacture  of  munitions  of  war, 
for  the  manufacture  or  repair  of  arms,  or  of 
u    r-     J-  •   ^^y^^^y  material  for  use  on  land  or  sea 
t?.  Conditional  contraband  articles.     (  Article  24  ) 
(i)   Food.  ■  ^'^ 

i^l  J?""^?^  ^"^  g^'ain  suitable  for  feeding  animals 
(3;   Clothing  and  fabrics  for  clothing,  boots  and 
shoes  suitable  for  military  use. 

(4)  Gold    and    silver    in    coin    or    bullion:    paper 

money.  ^ 

(5)  Vehicles  of  all  kinds  available  for  use  in  war 

and  their  unassembled  parts 

(6)  Vessels,  craft,  and  boats  of  all  kinds,  floating 

docks,  parts  of  docks,  as  also  their  unassem- 
bled parts. 

(7)  Fixed  railway  material  and  rolling-stock   and 

material  for  telegraphs,  radio  telegraphs,  and 
telephones. 

(8)  Balloons  and  flying  machines 

(9)  Fuel;  lubricants. 

(10)  Powder  and  explosives  which  are  not  specially 

adapted  for  use  in  war. 

(11)  Barbed  wire,  as  also  implements  for  placing  and 

cutting  the  same.  t-        5      u 

(12)  Horseshoes  and  horseshoeing  materials. 
yS)   Harness  and  saddlery  material 

(14)   Binocular  glasses,  telescopes,  etc. 

'*  hTAT'"^"'  Ta  "?',  '°  ^^  ''^^'^'<^  ^'  contra- 

band of  war.     (Articles  29,  28  ) 

(I)  Articles  and  materials  serving  exclusively  for 
the  care  of  sick  and  wounded.  Articles  and 
materials  intended  for  the  use  of  the  vessel 
in  which  they  are  found,  as  well  as  those  for 
the  use  of  her  crew  and  passengers  during 
the  voyage.  ^ 

12)  Raw  cotton,  wool,  silk,  jute,  flax,  hemp,  and 
other  raw  materials  of  the  textile  industries 
and  also  yarns  of  the  same. 

(3)  Nuts  and  oil  seeds;  copra 

(4)  Rubber    resins,  gums,  and  lacs;  hops. 

(5)  Kaw  hides,  horns,  bones,  and  ivory 

(6)  Natural  and  artificial  fertilizers,  including  ni- 

trates and  phosphates  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. ^ 


INTERNATIONAL  RULES  FOR  WAR  95 

(7)  Metallic  ores.  . 

(8)  Earths,    clays,    lime,    chalk,    stone,    including 

marble,  bricks,  slates,  and  tiles. 
(q)   Chinaware  and  glass. 

(10)  Paper  and  materials  prepared  for  its  manufac- 

ture. .     ,    ,.  ^-1 

(11)  Soap,  paint  and  colors,  including  articles  ex- 

clusively   used   in   their    manufacture;    and 
varnishes.  . 

(12)  Bleaching  powder,  soda  ash,  caustic  soda,  salt 

cake,   ammonia,    sulphate   of   ammonia   and 
sulphate  of  copper.  . 

(13)  Agricultural,     mining,     textile     and    printing 

machinery.  , 

(14)  Precious  stones,  semi-precious  stones,  pearls, 

mother-of-pearl,  and  coral. 

(15)  Clocks  and  watches,  other  than  chronometers. 

(16)  Fashion  and  fancy  goods. 

(17)  Feathers  of  all  kinds,  hairs,  bristles. 

(18)  Articles   of   household   furniture   and   decora- 

tion ;  office  furniture  and  accessories. 


96  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 


References 

See  the  treaties  and  conventions  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of 
this  lecture.    Also  works  on  international  law. 

Spiller:  Inter-Racial  Problems  (1911)  4iof. 

Bordwell:  The  Law  of  War  between  Belligerents  (1908). 

Spaight:  War  Rights  in  Land. 

Payrat :  Le  prissionnier  de  guerre  dans  la  guerre  continentale. 

Wehberg :  Das  Beuterecht  im  Land-  und  Seekriege. 

[Same]  :  Capture  in  War  on  Land  and  Sea  (Transl.  Robertson, 
(1911). 

Bentwich:  The  Declaration  of  London  (1911). 

Monsell:  Declaration  of  London  Explained.  In  Navy  League 
Annual,  1911-1912,  135-151. 

Bate :  An  Elementary  Account  of  the  Declaration  of  London  and 
some  Kindred  Matters. 

Bowles :  Sea  Law  and  Sea  Power. 

Fulton :  The  Sovereignty  of  the  Sea. 

MacDonnell :  Some  Plain  Reasons  for  Immunity  from  Capture  of 
Private  Property  at  Sea  (Pamphlet). 

Latifi :  Effects  of  War  on  Property.  With  a  note  on  "Belligerents' 
Rights  at  Sea,"  by  Westlake  (1909). 

Hirst:  Commerce  and  Property  in  Naval  Warfare  (1906). 

Jones:  Commerce  in  War  (1907). 

Bowles:  The  Declaration  of  Paris,  1856  .  .  .  (1900). 

Tryon:  Freedom  of  Commerce  in  Time  of  War  (1908). 

Cohen:  Immunity  of  Enemy's  Property  from  Capture  at  Sea 
(Paper  read  at  National  Liberal  Club,  1909). 

Halleck:  Military  Espionage.     Am.  J.  of  Int.  Law,  5,  590. 

Dupuis :  Le  droit  de  la  guerre  maritime. 

Leroux :  Le  droit  international  pendant  la  guerre  maritime  Russo- 
Japonaise. 

Great  Britain,  Parliamentary  Papers,  1909  (Cd.  4554),  LIV, 
Correspondence  and  Documents  Respecting  the  Interna- 
tional Naval  Conference  held  in  London,  December,  1908, 
to  February,  1909. 

Great  Britain,  Parliamentary  Papers,  1909  (Cd.  4555)  LIV.  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  International  Naval  Conference  .  .  . 

Takahashi :  International  Law  applied  to  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
(1908). 

For  further  references  see  Peace  Year-Book,  1911,  p.  180. 


INTERNATIONAL   ARBITRATION  97 


XXI.     THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  INTERNATIONAL 
ARBITRATION. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Ancient  period. 

1.  Oriental  states:  arbitration  had  no  place  in  an  age  when 

some  one  state  must  be  supreme  and  all  others  subject. 

2.  Greece:   Arbitration   well  known.     About  75   cases   re- 

corded. 
Arbiters:  Amphictyonic  Council,  oracles,  friendly  cities 
Awards  executed  in  a  ratio  of  17   :  3. 

3.  Rome:  Arbitration  known,  but  the  extension  of  the  Em- 

pire tended  to  bring  it  into  disuse. 
Three  classes   of  arbitration    (Phillipson,    154). 
International,  federal,  administrative. 

B.  Mediaeval  period.     Not  a  feature  of  the  middle  ages  though 

many  differences  were  settled  by  means  of  arbitration. 

1.  Arbiters:  pope,  emperor,  various  potentates,  cities. 

2.  Cases  of  arbitral  settlement  in  the  middle  ages  are  nu- 

merous, but  relatively  unimportant.  The  most  famous 
is  the  fixing  of  the  Line  of  Demarcation  by  Alexander 
VI,  1493,  determining  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
claims  to  the  newly  discovered  lands  and  seas. 

3.  Special  agreements  to  arbitrate  (Moch,  36-38). 

1238.  Treaty  of  alliance  between  Genoa  and  Venice  con- 
tained a  general  arbitral  clause. 

1291.  Three  Swiss  cantons  accept  arbitration. 

1389.  Denmark  and  Norway  obliged  by  treaty  to  sub- 
mit their  differences  to  the  Hanse  for  settlement. 

1418.  Hanseatic  cities  adopt  principle  of  arbitration. 

1 5 16.  "Perpetual  peace"  between  France  and  Switzer- 
land recognizes  the  principle. 
C.  Modern  period. 

1.  Early  advocates  of  arbitration  (See  Lecture  XVIII). 

2.  Arbitration   and  mediation  in  the  early  modern  period. 

Monaco  versus   Savoy,    1713.      (See   Bridgman:   First 
Book  of  World  Law,  72.) 

3.  Early    treaties    involving    the    principle    of    arbitration 

(Darby,  240!). 
"Conservators  of  Commerce,"  1606. 
Treaties  of  Westminster,  1654- 1674. 
Treaty  of  Florence:  England  and  Savoy,  1669. 
Judges   Conservators,    1712.      (Assiento.) 
Treaty  of  Ryswick,  1697. 

Jay  Treaty:  United  States  and  England,  1794.    Usually 
regarded  as  the  first  modern  treaty  of  arbitration. 


98  LECTURES   ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

4,  The  acceptance  of  arbitration  by  legislative  bodies. 
"^    (It  will  be  noticed  that  the  work  of  the  peace  advocates 
•      mentioned  in  Lecture  XVII  was  in  the  main  of 
a  private,   unofficial  character;   it  prepared   the 
way   for   legislative   or   official   consideration   of 
arbitration  which  is  here  treated.) 
The  United  States  played  a  leading  role. 

1835.  Resolution  favoring  the  erection  of  an  inter- 
national tribunal  of  arbitration  adopted  by 
the    Senate    of    Massachusetts    (Ladd    and 
Thomson). 
1837.  Similar   resolution   adopted   by   both   House 

and  Senate  of  Massachusetts. 
1842.  William  Jay  proposed  a  treaty  of  arbitration 

with  England. 
1851.  Committee  on  foreign  affairs  (Senate?)  ap- 
proved of  arbitration. 
1853.  Senate  of  U.  S.  unanimously  adopted  Under- 
wood resolution  favoring  arbitration. 
1873.  Congress   adopted  a  resolution   favoring  an 
arbitral  tribunal  and  the  insertion  of  arbitral 
clauses     in     treaties      (Sumner,     Bordman 
Smith). 
1882.  President  Arthur's   message   favors   arbitra- 
tion. 
1888.  Congress   approves    a   bill    favoring   treaties 
of   arbitration   with   all   powers    (Sherman, 
Hitt). 

( 1889 :  Pan-American  Movement ;  First  Pan- 
American  Conference.) 
France,  first  in  Europe. 

1849.  Bouvert  introduced  a  resolution  in  favor  of 
arbitration    into    National    Assembly.      De- 
feated. 
England. 

1849.  I^^'^   favoring  arbitration  defeated  by  Com- 
mons  after   violent   debate    (Cobden,    Hob- 
house,  Milner-Gibson,  Elihu  Burritt). 
1873.  Commons   approved  arbitration,   though  op- 
posed by  Gladstone  (Richard,  Lawson). 
1887.  Bill  introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords  but 
withdrawn  because  of  the  opposition  of  Lord 
Salisbury  (Marquis  of  Bristol). 
1887.  Treaty  of  arbitration  with  United  States  at- 
tempted by  England  at  the  instance  of  John 
Bright. 


INTERNATIONAL  ARBITRATION  99 

The  Netherlands. 

1873-4.  Question  of  arbitration  raised  in  the  States- 
General  by  Van  Eck  and  Bredius.     No  ac- 
tion.   Carried  further  in  1878,  and  1904. 
Italy. 

1873.  Mancini    introduced    a    bill    into    Chambers 

favoring  the  insertion  of  arbitral  clauses  in 
treaties.      Adopted.      Has    been    put    into 
practice. 
Sweden. 

1874.  Lower  House  adopted  resolution  favoring  a 

permanent  arbitral  tribunal   (Jonassen). 
Denmark. 

1875.  Measure  similar  to  the  last  above  defeated 
in  the  Folketing  (Lower  House). 

1878.  Folketing    adopted    a   petition    favoring   the 
arbitration    of   differences    between   Scandi- 
navian states. 
Belgium. 

1875.  Senate    and     Chamber    of    Representatives 
adopted    a    measure     favoring    arbitration 
(Couvreur,    Thonissen,    Kint    de    Rooden- 
beke). 
The   establishment   of   the    Interparliamentary   Union, 
1889,   and  the   initial   success   of  the   Pan-American 
movement,  1889,  practically  saw  the  triumph  of  the 
principle  of  arbitration   of  international   differences. 
Since  that  time  the  question  has  been  what  the  scope 
of  arbitration  shall  be,  as  will  appear  from  the  fol- 
lowing. 
D.     Classification  of  treaties  of  arbitration. 

(Writers   differ   in   their   classification,   and   the   following 

grouping  is  a  combination  of  several  schemes.) 
In  all  treaties  of  arbitration  the  clause  of  reference  is  par- 
ticularly important,  as  it  determines  the  character  of 
the  treaty  as  well  as  the  class  of  matters  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  arbitration.  (Am.  J.  of  Intern.  Law,  2, 
823f.)  _ 

1.  Treaties  submitting  a  specific  difference  to  arbitration, 

drafted  after  the  dispute  began    ("occasional"  arbi- 
tration). 

2.  Treaties  agreeing  to  submit  to  arbitration  future  differ- 

ences ("permanent")  : — 
0.  Over   the   interpretation    of   the   treaty    (containing 
the  clause  of  arbitration)  or  rising  out  of  it  ("a 
clause  speciale"). 


lOO  LECTURES    ON    INTERNATIONAL    CONCILIATION 

First  of  this  kind:  Chile-Peru,  1823  (Moch,  9). 
For  a  hst  (incomplete)  of  treaties  of  this  kind  see 
La  Fontaine:  Pasicrisie,  xii. 
b.  Over  any  matter,  whether  rising  out  of  treaties  or 
otherwise,    excepting   certain   categories   of   dis- 
putes (general  treaties). 
[This  has  been  accomplished   (i)    by  inserting  a 
clause  to  that  effect  in  a  treaty  relating  to  an- 
other  matter,   "a   clause   generale."      (The   first 
treaty  of  this  kind  according  to  La  Fontaine,  x, 
is   Colombia-Central   Republic,    1825.     La   Fon- 
taine gives  an  incomplete  list  of  these  treaties)  , 
or  (2),  by  a  treaty  made  especially  for  the  pur- 
pose (a  treaty  of  arbitration  proper).     Moch,  p. 
41,   seems  to  hold  that  the  first  treaty   of  this 
character  was  one  between  Colombia  and  Peru, 
1822.] 
Disputes  which  are  excepted  from  arbitration  by 
treaties : 
Questions   which   can   be   decided  by  the  na- 
tional courts. 
Questions    concerning   the   constitution    of    a 

state. 
Questions  of  vital  interest,  independence,  na- 
tional honor,  and  those  which  concern  the 
interests  of  third  parties   (France-England, 
1903 ;    U.     S.-England,     1908 ;     and    many 
others). 
Questions  not  "justiciable  in  their  nature  by 
reason  of  being  susceptible  of  decision  by 
the  application  of  the  principles  of  law  or 
equity."     (So-called  Taft  treaties  with  Eng- 
land and  France,  pending  1912.) 
3.  Compulsory  or  "obligatory"  treaties. 

Treaties  have  been  drawn  which  aim  to  define  what  dis- 
putes between  nations  cannot  be  said  to  com- 
promise vital  interest,  independence,  national 
honor,  or  the  interests  of  third  parties,  or  any  of 
the  subjects  included  under  exceptions  from  ar- 
bitration, and  which  guarantee  to  submit  to 
arbitration  all  disputes  of  this  class.  These  are 
treaties  of  compulsory  arbitration.  Though  these 
treaties  differ  somewhat  in  detail  they  roughly 
agree  that  if  diplomacy  fails,  arbitration  shall 
be  regarded  as  compulsory  for  the  following 
classes  of  differences: 


INTERNATIONAL  ARBITRATION  Id 

a.  Disputes  concerning  the  application  or  interpre- 

tation of  any  treaty,  relating  to: 
(i)   Matters  of  international  private  law. 

(2)  The  management  of  companies. 

(3)  Matters  of  civil  and  criminal  procedure, 
and  of  extradition. 

b.  Disputes  concerning  pecuniary  claims  based  on 

damages  (with  certain  limitations). 

c.  Differences  of  a  judicial  order.     (Am.  J.  of  Int. 

Law,  2,  823-30.) 

4.  Unlimited  treaties,  which  make  no  reservations  at  all. 

(These  are  considered  in  Lecture  XXII.) 

5.  A  general  treaty  of  arbitration  which  all  nations  shall 

sign  has  been  advocated. 

6.  Life  of  treaties  of  arbitration. 

For  five  or  ten  years :  renewable ;  lapse  if  not  renewed. 

Indeterminate:  run  until  abrogated. 
Number  of  treaties  of  arbitration  is  hard  to  establish  because 
of  the  differences  in  classification,  and  incompleteness  of 
researches. 

1.  Treaties  of  occasional  arbitration;  number  not  ascer- 

tained. 

2.  Treaties  agreeing  to  submit  future  differences  ("a  clause 

speciale"  and  "a  clause  generale"). 

La  Fontaine,  xiv-xv.     1821-1900. 

North   America    172 

Europe  87 

Africa 12 

Asia    6 

South  America 4 

Total    281 

Moch,  127-130.    1822-1Q09. 
314  treaties  of  all  classes. 
120  eliminated  because  counted  twice  or  expired. 

194  in  force  in  1909. 

Of  these  163  are  treaties  of  arbitration  proper 
according  to  Moch's  classification. 

3.  Treaties  of  compulsory  or  "obligatory"  arbitration.  These 

were  made  in  pursuance  of  Article  19,  of  the  Con- 
vention for  Pacific  Settlement,  Hague  Conference, 
1899.    (Am.  J.  of  Int.  Law,  2,  823-30.) 


102  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

1903 2  treaties  of  this  kind. 

1904 27 

190S 48 

1906 49 

1907 53 

1908 80 

(Bulletin  de  la  Conciliation  Intern.  No.  3,  1908.) 

.  Number    of    treaties    according    to    plate    taken    from 
"Annuaire  de  Vie  Internationale,"  1908,  p.  516. 
(See  p.  103.) 
F.  Arbitral  Procedure  (Ralston:  International  Arbitral  Law  and 
Procedure,  especially  pp.  17-85;  129-140). 

1.  Special  agreement  ("compromis,"  protocol).    Every  case 

is  submitted  to  arbitration  by  means  of  a  special  agree- 
ment. 

a.  Names  the  arbiters.     (A  list  of  persons  who  have 

been  arbiters  in  Richet,  300-301.) 
Single  arbiter. 
Tribunal :  each  disputant  selects  arbiters  and  these 

selected  representatives  name  an  umpire. 

b.  Defines  the  powers  of  the  arbiters. 

c.  Fixes  the  rules  of  procedure. 

d.  Defines  the  question  at  issue. 

e.  Promises  to  accept  the  award  (sometimes). 

/.  Special  agreement  as  provided  by  the  Hague  Con- 
ferences. 
1899,  I,  Art.  31   (Scott:  texts,  36). 
1907,  I,  Art.  52   (Scott:  texts,  177). 
Differences  about  the   special   agreement  may  be 
arbitrated. 
g.  Each  power  ratifies  the  special  agreement  according 
to  the  provisions  of  its  constitution. 

2.  Procedure. 

The  procedure  is  determined  by  special  agreement.  No 
code  as  yet  accepted,  though  Hague  Conferences 
make  a  beginning,  1899,  I,  Art.  48:  The  "tribunal  is 
authorized  to  declare  its  competence  in  interpreting 
the  'Compromis'  .  .  .  and  in  applying  the  principles  of 
international  [the  word  "international"  was  omitted 
from  the  draft  of  the  Convention  for  Pacific  Settlement 
Art.  73,  1907]  law."     (Scott:  Texts,  40-41.) 


LE  VOTE  EN  PAVEUR 
DE  L  ARBITRAGE  OBLIGATOJR^ 
A  LA  £6  CONFERENCE  DE 
LA  HAYE.  PAR  HABITANT 


1^03 


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190a 


104  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

3.  Appeal  and  revision. 

Arbitration  implies  the  intention  to  accept  the  award. 
Hague  Conference,  1899,  I,  Art.  55:  "The  parties 
can  reserve  in  the  'Compromis'  the  right  to  demand 
the  revision  of  the  award.  In  this  case,  and  unless 
there  be  an  agreement  to  the  contrary,  the  demand 
must  be  addressed  to  the  Tribunal  which  pronounced 
the  award.  It  can  only  be  made  on  the  ground  of 
the  discovery  of  some  new  fact  calculated  to  exercise 
a  decisive  influence  on  the  award,  and  which,  at  the 
time  the  discussion  was  closed,  was  unknown  to  the 
Tribunal  and  to  the  party  demanding  the  revision. 
Proceedings  for  revision  can  only  be  instituted  by  a 
decision  of  the  Tribunal  expressly  recording  the  exist- 
ence of  the  new  fact,  recognizing  in  it  the  character 
described  in  the  foregoing  paragraph,  and  declaring 
the  demand  admissible  on  this  ground.  The  'Com- 
promis' fixes  the  period  within  which  the  demand  for 
the  revision  must  be  made."     (Scott:  Texts,  42-43-) 

Renewed  in  practically  the  same  terms  in  1907,  Conven- 
tion I,  Art.  83.     (Scott:  Texts,  186-7.) 

4.  The  sanction  of  arbitration. 

Public  opinion. 

Surrendering  the  object  in  dispute  to  the  arbiters  be- 
forehand, to  be  disposed  of  according  to  the  sentence ; 
or,  if  that  is  not  feasible,  giving  some  pledge  which 
is  to  be  sequestrated  if  the  award  is  not  accepted ; 
such  as  territory,  a  building,  property,  lien  on  cus- 
toms, a  ship,  etc. 
(Chile  offered  to  deposit  one  million  dollars  with  the 
Hague  Tribunal  in  her  dispute  with  the  United 
States,  1909.) 
G.  Mediation  and  good  offices. 

Object:  to  permit  third  powers  to  help  disputants  bring 
their  differences  to  arbitration,  or  to  bring  a  war 
to  an  end. 
Encouraged  by  the  Hague  Conferences. 

1899,  I,  Art.  2-8  (Scott:  Texts,  24-26). 
1907,  I,  Art.  2-8   (Scott:  Texts.  157-159). 
H.  International  Commissions  of  Inquiry  (Ralston,  315-318). 
First  formal  recognition  by  Hague  Conference,  1899,  I,  Art. 

9-14.     (Scott:  Texts,  26-28.) 
If  powers  cannot  settle  a  matter  by  diplomatic  means,  a 
commission  may  be  appointed  to  investigate  the  facts. 
Constituted  by  special  agreement  (as  above). 


INTERNATIONAL  ARBITRATION  IO5 

Powers  are  expected  to  help  the  work  of  the  commission  by 
furnishing  the  facts. in  their  possession. 

Report  of  the  commission  has  about  it  nothing  of  the  char- 
acter of  an  award,  and  leaves  the  nations  at  dispute 
their  entire  freedom. 

Commission  employed  in  the  "Dogger  Bank"  affair.  (Only 
use  to  date.) 

Second  Hague  Conference,  1907,  I,  Art.  9-36  (Scott:  Texts, 
159-168),  elaborates  the  scheme. 
/.  Frequency  of  recourse  to  arbitration.     (Hague  cases.     See 
Lectuie  XX VH.) 

Moch,  26.    1800-1900.    212  cases.    All  accepted. 

Darby,  769-917.     1800- 1900.     222  arbitrations  proper. 
1 900- 1 904.       21 


Total         243  formal  arbitrations. 
Besides  these,  Darby  gives  297  instances  in  which  he 
considers  the  principle  of  arbitration  was  applied. 

La  Fontaine,  viii.     1 794-1900,  177  arbitrations. 

1794-1820 15  cases. 

1821-1840 8 

1841-1860 20 

1861-1880 44 

1881-1900 90. 

By  countries  to  1901.     (To  1904,  Richet,  p.  304.) 

Great  Britain 70  (heads  the  list). 

United  States 56 

Chile 26 

France 26 

(For  the  complete  list  by  countries  and  by  grand  divi- 
sions see  La  Fontaine,  ix.) 
Richet,  362-4.     1 794- 1 904.    210  cases. 

(Richet  gives  a  list  of  these  cases  by  years  and  by  de- 
cades, showing  the  average  per  year.) 
/.  Serious  differences  settled  by  arbitration  (selected). 

Alabama  case  (1871-2);  The  Carolines  (Germany  and 
France,  1885)  ;  Samoan  Case  (United  States,  Ger- 
many, England,  1899)  ;  Guiana  boundary  (England- 
Venezuela,  1899;  United  States  intervened);  Casa- 
blanca affair  (Germany-France,  1909)  ;  House-Tax 
case  (England,  France,  Germany- Japan,  1905),  etc. 
K.  Classes  of  differences  submitted  to  arbitration. 

Boundary  disputes  (probably  most  abundant),  territory, 
violation  of  territorial  integrity,  pecuniary  claims  of 
all  kinds   (including  the  crown  jewels  of  the  House 


106  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

of  Hanover),  commerce,  navigation  of  rivers,  fish- 
eries, interpretation  of  treaties,  violations  of  treaties, 
indemnities,  immigration,  citizenship,  tariffs,  seizure 
of  ships,  false  arrests  (sovereignty? — succession  to 
the  throne  of  Persia,  1835  ;  inheritance  in  Lippe-Det- 
mold,  1897 ;  House-tax  in  Japan,  1905 ;  Ottoman  Pub- 
lic Debt,  1903). 

L.  Success  of  arbitration :  Every  award  has  been  accepted. 

(Some  mention  the  award  of  the  King  of  the  Netherlands 
in  the  Canadian  boundary  case  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  183,1,  as  an  exception. 
However,  the  United  States  rejected  the  award  on 
the  ground  that  the  arbiter  had  exceeded  his  powers; 
hence  this  is  not  a  real  refusal  to  accept  the  decision. 
The  difference  was  settled  by  the  Webster-Ashburton 
.  Treaty  in  1842.) 
Bolivia  afid  Peru  threatened  to  reject  an  arbitral  sentence 
in  1909,  but  finally  accepted  it. 

M.  The  cost  of  arbitration.  It  is  insignificant  compared  to  the 
cost  of  war. 

References 

La  Fontaine:  Pasicrisie  Internationale  (1902).     (Excellent.) 

Ralston:  International  Arbitral  Law  and  Procedure  (1910). 

Moch:  Histoire  sommaire  de  I'arbitrage  permanent  (1910). 
(Bibliography,  p.  5-6.) 

Darby:  International  Tribunals  (1904). 

Dumas:  Les  sanctions  de  I'arbitrage  international  (1905). 

Merignhac:  Traite  theorique  et  pratique  de  I'arbitrage  inter- 
national  (1895). 

Scott:  Texts  of  the  Peace  Conferences  at  the  Hague  (1908). 

Richet:  Le  passe  de  la  guerre  et  I'avenir  de  la  paix  (1907),  243f. 

Phillipson :  International  Law  and  Custom  of  Ancient  Greece  and 
Rome  (191 1 ). 

Bloch:  Der  Krieg  (1899),  V,  1-197;  VI. 

Westerman:  Interstate  Arbitration  in  Antiquity,  Classical  Jour- 
nal, 2,  I 97-2 II, 

Moore:  History  and  Digest  of  International  Arbitrations  to 
which  the  United  States  has  been  a  party  (1893-4).  U.  S. 
Govt.  Docs.,  3267.    7  volumes. 

Myers:  List  of  Arbitration  Treaties  (Pamphlet,  1911). 

Darby:  International  Arbitration.  International  Law  Associa- 
tion, 22  Report,  17-37. 

Peace  Year-Book,  1911,  ii9f.     (Treaties  since  1899.) 

Moxey:  International  Law.    Am.  Law  Rev.,  40,  188-196. 


UNLIMITED   TREATIES   OF   ARBITRATION  lO/ 

Library  of  Congress :  References  on  International  Arbitration. 

Quesada:  Arbitration  in  Latin  America   (1907)- 

Revon:  L'arbitrage  international,  son  passe,  son  present,  son 
avenir. 

Seve:  Cours  d'enseignement  pacifiste  (1910),  217-291. 

Descamps  et  Renault:  Recueil  international  des  traites  dii  XX' 
siecle   (1905). 

Lord:  List  of  Treaties  containing  Provisions  for  Settlement  by 
Arbitration.    Ann.  Am.  Acad.  Pol.  Sci.  2,  471-487. 

Hazell's  Annual,  1910,  232. 

Cambridge  Modern  History,  XII  (1911),  Bibliography,  954-956. 

Dumas :  De  la  responsabilite  du  pouvoir  executif  consideree  com- 
me  Tune  des  sanctions  de  l'arbitrage  international.  (Ex- 
tract from  Rev.  Politique  et  Parliamentaire,  August,  1901.) 

Morris:  International  Arbitration  and  Procedure  (i9ii)- 

Balch :  L'evolution  de  l'arbitrage  international. 

Van  der  Busch :  Le  proces  international  entre  la  Bolivie  et  le 
Perou   (1909). 

Raeder:  International  Arbitration  Among  the  Greeks,  (Pub- 
lished by  the  Norwegian  Nobel  Institute,  1912.) 

Nijhoflf:  Traites  generaux  d'arbitrage,  communiques  au  Bureau 
International  de  la  Cour  Permanente  d'Arbitrage  (1911). 

Dumas:  Sanctions  of  International  Arbitration.  Am.  J.  of  Int. 
Law,  5 :  934-957- 

Balch:  International  Courts  of  Arbitration  (1874). 

[A  collection  of  all  known  arbitrations  and  arbitration  treaties  is 
in  preparation.] 

(Consult  also  periodicals,  encyclopedias,  treatises  on  international 
law,  etc.) 


I08  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


XXII.    UNLIMITED  TREATIES  OF  ARBITRATION. 
(Krehbiel) 

A.  Treaties  of  unlimited  arbitration  are  those  which  contemplate 

the  arbitration  of  all  differences  which  are  really  interna- 
tional in  character. 
The  prevailing  type  of  treaty  reserves  certain  categories  of 
differences  from  arbitration,  "differences  .  .  .  which 
do  not  affect  the  vital  interests,  the  independence,  or 
the  honor  of  the  two  contracting  parties,  and  do  not 
concern  the  interests  of  third  parties." — (Treaty  be- 
tween United  States  and  Great  Britain,  1908.) 

B.  Treaties  of  unlimited  arbitration. 

1.  Argentine-Chile. 

May  28,  1902.  Ratifications  exchanged  September  22. 
1902.  (British  and  Foreign  State  Papers,  95,  759.) 
Art.  I.  "The  High  Contracting  Parties  bind  them- 
selves to  submit  to  arbitration  all  controversies  between 
them,  of  whatever  nature  they  may  be,  or  from  what- 
ever cause  they  may  have  arisen,  except  when  they  affect 
the  principles  of  the  Constitution  of  either  country,  and 
provided  that  no  other  settlement  is  possible  by  direct 
negotiations." 

(Article  II  provides  that  questions  that  are  regard- 
ed as  settled  at  the  time  the  treaty  is  signed  may  not  be 
forced  to  arbitration  under  the  treaty.) 

2.  Denmark-Netherlands. 

February  12,  1904.  Ratifications  exchanged  March  8, 
1906.    (British  State  Papers,  98,  454.    Moch,  86.) 

Art.  I.  "Les  Hautes  Parties  contractantes  s'en- 
gagent  a  soumettre  a  la  Cour  Permanente  d'Arbitrage 
tous  les  differends  et  tons  les  litiges  entre  elles,  qui 
n'auront  pu  etre  resolus  par  les  voies  diplomatiques." 

Art.  3.  "11  est  bien  entendu  que  I'article  i'^'" 
n'est  pas  applicable  aux  differends  entre  les  ressortis- 
sants  de  I'un  des  etats  contractants  et  I'autre  etat  con- 
tractant,  que  les  tribunaux  de  ce  dernier  etat  seraient, 
d'apres  la  legislation  de  cet  etat,  competents  a  juger." 

3.  Denmark-Italy. 

December  16,  1905.  Ratifications  exchanged  May  22, 
1906.  (British  State  Papers,  99,  1035.  Moch, 
86-7.) 


UNLIMITED   TREATIES   OF   ARBITRATION  I09 

By  article   i    the  contracting  parties  agree  to  submit 
"tous  les  differends  de  n'importe  quelle  nature 
qui    viendraient    a    s'elever    entre    elles    et    qui 
n'auraient  pu  etre  resolus  par   les  voies   diplo- 
matiques,  et  cela  meme  dans  le  cas  ou  ces  dif- 
ferends   auraient    leur    origine    dans    des    faits 
anterieurs   a   la  conclusion   de  la  presente  con- 
vention." 
Art.  4.     "II  est  entendu  qu'a  moins  que  la  contro- 
verse  ne  porte  sur  I'application  d'une  convention  entre 
les  deux  etats,  ou  qu'il  ne  s'agisse  d'un  cas  de  deni  de 
justice,  I'article  i^^  ne  sera  pas  applicable  aux  differends 
qui  pourraient  s'elever  entre  un  ressortissant  de  Tune 
des  parties  et  I'autre  etat  contractant  lorsque  les  tri- 
bunaux  auront,  d'apres  la  legislation  de  cet  etat,  com- 
petence pour  juger  la  contestation." 
Denmark-Portugal. 
March  22,  1907. 

(Similar  to  Denmark-Italy  treaty.    Moch,  86.) 
Costa    Rica-  Honduras  -  Guatemala  -  Nicaragua  -  Salvador. 

December  20,  1907. 
Each  of  these  countries  entered  upon  the  treaty  with 
each  other,  which  is  the  reason  why  Moch  counts  this 
series  as  ten  treaties.      (Bulletin  of  the   Bureau  of 
American  Republics,  25,   I345f.) 

Article  I.  They  [the  Republics  of  Central  Amei- 
ica]  "bind  themselves  to  always  preserve  the  most  com- 
plete harmony  and  decide  every  difference  or  difficulty 
that  may  arise  amongst  them,  of  whatsoever  nature  it 
may  be,  by  means  of  the  Central  American  Court  of 
Justice,  created  by  the  Convention  which  they  have  con- 
cluded for  that  purpose  on  this  date." 

This  article  should  be  taken  together  with  Articles 
I  and  II  of  the  Convention  for  the  Establishment  of  a 
Central  American  Court  of  Justice  (Bulletin  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  25,  1351)  ;  "The  High 
Contracting  Parties  agree  by  the  present  Convention  to 
constitute  and  maintain  a  permanent  tribunal  which  shall 
be  called  the  'Central  American  Court  of  Justice;'  to 
which  they  bind  themselves  to  submit  all  controversies 
or  questions  which  may  arise  among  them,  of  whatsoever 
nature  and  no  matter  what  their  origin  may  be,  in  case 
the  respective  Departments  of  Foreign  Affairs  should 
not  have  been  able  to  reach  an  understanding." 


no  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Article  II.     "This  court  shall  also  take  cognizance 
of    the    questions    which    individuals    of    one    Central 
American  country  may  raise  against  any  of  the  other 
contracting  Governments,  because  of  the  violation  ot 
Treaties  or  Conventions,  and  other  cases  of  an  interna- 
tional character ;  no  matter  whether  his  own  Government 
supports  said  claim  or  not ;  and  provided  that  the  reme- 
dies which  the  laws  of  the  respective  country  provide 
.  against  such  violation  shall  have  been  exhausted  and 
that  a  denial  of  justice  shall  be  shown." 
6.  Italy-Netherlands. 
November  28,  1909. 
(Moch,  90.) 

Art.  I.  "Les  Hautes  Parties  contractantes  s'enga- 
gent  a  soumettre  a  la  Cour  Permanente  d'arbitrage  tons 
les  differends  qui  viendraient  a  s'elever  entre  elles  et 
qui  n'auraient  pu  etre  resolus  par  la  voie  diplomatique, 
et  cela  rneme  dans  le  cas  ou  ces  differends  auraient  leur 
origine  dans  des  faits  anterieurs  a  la  conclusion  de  la 
presente  convention." 

Art.  6.  "Dans  les  questions  du  ressort  des  auto- 
rites  judiciaires  nationales,  selon  les  lois  territoriales, 
les  parties  contractantes  ont  le  droit  de  ne  pas  soumettre 
le  differend  au  jugement  arbitral  avant  que  la  juridic- 
tion  nationale  competente  se  soit  prononcee  definitive- 
ment,  sauf  le  cas  de  deni  de  justice." 

(Moch  classifies  the  treaty  between  Italy  and  Ar- 
gentine, September  18,  1907,  and  between  Italy  and 
Mexico,  October  16,  1907,  as  unlimited.  However, 
these  treaties  expressly  except  differences  respecting 
nationality  from  arbitration.) 
C.  Resume  of  the  treaties.  They  agree  to  arbitrate  all  differences 
except — • 

1.  Those  which 'can  be  settled  by  diplomacy. 

All  the  treaties  make  this  exception,  but  it  does  not 
properly  constitute  a  reservation. 

2.  Those  which  affect  the  principles  of  the  constitution  of 

either  country.  (Treaty  i.) 
Under  the  prevailing  theories  of  sovereignty  and  in- 
dependence of  states,  such  differences  are  not 
properly  international  matters ;  and  may,  there- 
fore, be  said  to  be  excepting  no  international 
differences  from  arbitration.  However,  as  dis- 
putes may  arise  between  nations  over  constitu- 
tional matters,  this  treaty  is  not  generally  con- 
sidered to  be  unlimited. 


EXAMPLES  OF  INTERNATIONAL  ARBITRATION  III 

3.  Those  (between  individuals  and  states)  which  according 
to  the  existing  laws  of  the  country  (treaties  2,  3,  and 
6)  fall  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  national  courts, 
unless — 

a.  The  difference  arises  out  of  the  application  of  a  con- 

vention between  the  states  (treaties  3  and  4). 

b.  Justice  has  been  denied  (treaties  3  and  4)  ;  and  this 

is  shown  (treaties  5  and  6). 

From  the  foregoing  it  appears  that  none  of  the  so-called 
treaties  of  unHmited  arbitration  agrees  to  submit  all  international 
disputes  to  arbitration ;  rather,  they  contemplate  the  arbitration  of 
all  questions  which  are  truly  international,  and  not  purely  govern- 
mental in  character. 


112  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


XXIII.     EXAMPLES   OF  INTERNATIONAL 
ARBITRATION. 

(Jordan) 

A.  Three  ways  of  settling  an  international  difference  peaceably. 

1.  Adjustment. 

2.  Arbitration. 

3.  Judicial  determination. 

B.  Adjustment. 

Maine  boundary. 
"Fifty- four  forty  or  fight." 
Northwest  angle. 
Pope's  folly. 

C.  Arbitration. 

I.  Bering  Sea  case  (1892). 
a.  Question. 

Fur  seal  breeds  on  Pribilof  and  Komandorski. 

Remains  in  sea  all  winter. 

Females  go  out  to  feed  in  summer. 

Young  born  in  early  July,  weaned  in  September. 

1,000,000  females  on  Pribilof  in  1885;  500,000  on 

Komandorski. 
29  out  of  30  males  superfluous. 
Land  killing  affects  superfluous  males  only. 
Pelagic  sealing  kills  animals  at  sea  indiscriminately. 
For  every  female  killed,  one  unborn  young  dies,  or 

"pup"  starves. 
Cut  down  to  350,000  in  1893. 
Cut  down  to  150,000  in  1897. 
Seizure  of  Canadian  vessels. 
h.  Court  of  arbitration. 

Seven    judges :    two    American,    two    British,    one 

French,  one  Norwegian,  one  Italian   (advocates 

on  bench). 
No  experts  allowed  to  appear ;  no  cross-examina- 
tion. 
No  agreed  case  or  statement  of  facts. 
All  testimony  in  printed  affidavits  (mostly  perjury 

on  both  sides). 
Judges  could  not  read  testimony   (time  too  short 

and  language  foreign). 
Introduction    of   new   evidence    (by   telegram)    in 

closing  argument. 
Arbitration    (splitting  the  difference)    in   place  of 
judgment. 


EXAMPLES  OF  INTERNATIONAL  ARBITRATION  II3 

.  Claim  of  United  States. 

Bering  Sea  a  Mare  Clausum  (on  basis  of  Russian 
claims). 

Justified  in  seizing  poachers.     (Act  of  war.) 

Fur  seal  has  animus  revertendi  (purpose  to  return). 
.  Claim  of  Great  Britain. 

Bering  Sea  open  ocean. 

Hence,  natural  right  to  kill  (because  not  forbidden). 

Animal    not    harmed    by    killing    of    females    and 
young. 
.  British  claims,  based  on  affidavits : 

That  seals  shot  and  lost  are  not  more  than  3%. 

That  females  did  not  out-number  males. 

These  largely  barren. 

That  Russian  and  American  herds  intermingle. 

That  not  all  seals  land. 

That  the  number  steadily  increases. 

That  they  mate  at  sea. 

That  they  have  other  breeding  places. 

That  they  find  new  ones. 

That  sexes  are  indistinguishable. 

That  sexes  travel  together. 

That  breeding  islands  are  often  raided. 

That  starving  pups  seek  other  mothers. 

That  pups  eat  sea  weed. 

That  driving  on  land  destroys  virility. 

That  killing  of  superfluous  males  destroys  herd. 

That  Russia  only  demanded  30  miles  of  protection. 
".  Decision  of  court. 

a.  Matters  of  law. 

Bering  Sea  not  Mare  Clausum. 

Herd  not  owned  by  U.  S. 

No  right  of  seizure. 

Seals  must  be  protected  in  interest  of  humanity. 

b.  Arbitration. 

Regulations  set  up  to  preserve  the  fur  seal; 
these  the  result  of  splitting  difference,  not 
study  of  animal.  This  made  killing  legal 
and  gave  it  great  impetus,  being  no  longer 
illicit  adventure  or  piracy. 

Herd  has  50,000  breeding  females  (1910). 

Probable  basis  of  settlement. 


114  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

2.  Alaska  Boundary  (1903). 

Boundary  on  mountain  chain  or  three  miles  from  coast, 

if  mountains  are  frontier. 
Settled  by  judicial  determination. 
Compromise  was  expected. 

Compromise    on    Pearse    Channel    vice    Portland 
Channel. 

3.  Samoan  Affair  (1899). 

Bombardment  of  Apia. 

Germany  vs.  Great  Britain  and  United  States. 

4.  Newfoundland  Fisheries. 

Principle  of  servitude. 

Does  coast-line  follow  indentations? 

5.  The  International  Fisheries. 

Adjustment  by  commission.   ' 

"The  Marauders'  Plea  of  Contiguity." 

References 

Jordan:  The  Paris  Tribunal  of  Arbitration,  Forum,  May,  1899, 

and  in  "Imperial  Democracy." 
Davidson:  The  Alaska  Boundary  (1903). 
Jordan,  Clark,  Stejneger,  Lucas,  Townsend:  The  Fur  Seals  and 

Fur  Seal  Islands  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  (1898). 
Hackett:  Reminiscences  of  the  Geneva  Tribunal  of  Arbitration 

(1911). 
Balch:  The  Alabama  Arbitration   (1900). 
Balch:  The  Alaska  Frontier  (1903). 
Balch:  The  Alaska-Canadian  Frontier  (1902). 
(For  additional  references  consult  the  particular  cases  in  Darby: 

International  Tribunals.) 


^\ 


FIRST  HAGUE  CONFERENCE  II5 


XXIV.     THE  FIRST  HAGUE  CONFERENCE. 
May  1 8- July  29,  1899. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Origin:    Called  by  the  Czar. 

1.  "Rescript,"  August  24,  1898. 

2.  Second  rescript,  Jan.  1899.  Contained  program.  (Scott,  4.) 

B.  Place:  Hague;  House  in  the  Woods  ("Huis  ten  Bosch"). 

C.  Members. 

Difficulty  as  to  what  powers  should  be  invited. 

Russia  invited  all  those  having  representatives  at  St.  Peters*- 

burg.     Exceptions. 
59  powers  claimed  sovereignty ;  26  were  represented. 

20  European     (Monaco,  San  Marino,  Papacy  omitted). 
4  Asiatic :  China,  Japan,  Siam,  Persia. 
2  American:  United  States,  Mexico. 
100  Delegates :  from  i  to  8  per  nation. 
Each  country  had  one  vote. 
Delegates  seated  alphabetically  (by  countries). 

D.  Festivities,  ceremonies,  etc. 

E.  Organization. 

Conference :  Plenary  session.    There  were  10  of  these. 
President:  Baron  de  Staal  (Russia), 
Cabinet  consisting  of  "first  delegates." 

Steering  committee  of  first  delegates  of  the  seven 
great  powers. 
Commissions. 

1.  Armaments  and  the  use  of  new  kinds  of  implements. 

50  members. 
a.  Military  warfare. 
h.  Naval  warfare. 

2.  Laws  and  customs  of  warfare.    67  members. 

a.  Military. 
h.  Naval. 

3.  Arbitration  and  other  means  of  preventing  war,     59 

members. 
Commission  on  Petitions.  15  members. 
Commission  on  Editing.    4  members. 
(Each  state  had  right  to  be  represented  on  a  commission 

and  first  delegates  determined  membership.) 
Honorary  offices. 


Il6  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

F.  Procedure. 

Language:  French. 

Secret.     No  stenographic  reports. 

Objection  of  reporters,  "Ambassadors  of  the  people." 

Summaries  of  each  session  authorized. 
Method  of  considering  propositions. 
Deputations,  delegations  and  petitions. 
Resolutions  of  the  Conference  are  of  three  classes : 

1.  Conventions. 

2.  Declarations. 

3.  Wishes  (voeux)  :  projects. 
Conference  adopted — 

Three  conventions  (Scott,  Texts,  21-79). 
Three  declarations  (Scott,  79-85). 
Six  wishes  (Scott,  20-21). 
tj.  Achievements. 

1.  The  greatest  achievement  was  undoubtedly  the  fact  that 

the  Conference  accomplished  anything  at  all,  for  it 
was  generally  expected  to  fail.  The  success  of  the 
first  venture  led  to  the  Second  Hague  Conference. 

2.  Conventions. 

a.  Convention  for  the  peaceful  adjustment  of  interna- 
tional differences.  (Scott:  Texts,  21-45). 
Good  offices  and  mediation  to  be  tried. 
International   commissions   of  inquiry  pronounced 

"useful"  (and  "desirable"  in  1907). 
Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration  established.     The 
best   thing   accomplished   by   the   first   con- 
ference. 
Nations  agreeing  to  this  convention  and  the  pro- 
portion of  the  world's  population  represented 
by  them. 
World's  population,  1899:  1,531,463,430. 
Signatories,   22   powers,   representing   54   per 

cent,  of  the  world's  population. 
Signatories  with  reservation,  4  powers  repre- 
senting 8  per  cent,  of  the  world's  population. 
Total  signers  26  powers,  representing  62  per 

cent. 
Adhering  to  the  Convention  later  (not  having 
been  represented  at  The  Hague),  18  powers 
representing  29  per  cent. 
Total  accepting  Convention,  44  nations  repre- 
senting 91  per  cent,  of  the  world's  population. 


FIRST  HAGUE  CONFERENCE  II7 

h.  Convention  regarding  the  laws  and  customs  of  war 
on  land.  (Scott:  Texts  45-71.) 
Adopted  a  code  of  warfare,  based  on  the  Lieber 
Code,  which  sought  not  only  to  alleviate  suffer- 
ing, but  to  prevent  it  as  well.  (Cf.  Syllabus 
XXI.) 

c.  Convention  for  the  adaptation  to  maritime  warfare  of 
the  principles  of  the  Geneva  Convention,   1864. 
(Scott:  Texts,  71-79.)     (Cf.  Syllabus  XXI.) 
3.  Declarations. 

a.  To  prevent  the  launching  of  projectiles  and  explos- 

ives   from    balloons    or    by    other    similar    new 
methods.     (Scott:  Texts,  79-80.)     For  five  years. 

b.  To  prohibit  the  use  of  projectiles,  the  only  object  of 

which  is  the  diffusion  of  asphyxiating  or  dele- 
terious gases.  (Scott:  Texts,  81-83.) 

c.  To  prohibit  the  use  of  bullets  which  expand  or  flatten 

easily  in  the  human  body   (mushroom  bullets) 
such  as  bullets  with  a  hard  envelope,  of  which  the 
envelope  does  not  entirely  cover  the  core,  or  is 
pierced  with  incisions.     (Scott:  Texts,  83-85). 
H.  Signatures  and  ratifications. 

1.  Signatures,  Scott:  Texts,  86-7. 

2.  Ratifications,  U.  S.  Foreign  Relations,  1905,  title  Nether- 

lands. 

References 

Conference  Internationale  de  la  Paix,  1899.     (Ofiicial  Minutes.) 

Scott:  Texts  of  The  Peace  Conferences  at  the  Hague  (1908). 

Scott:  The  Hague  Peace  Conferences   (1909). 

Hull:  The  Two  Hague  Conferences   (1908). 

Holls:  Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague   (1900). 

Scott:  American  Addresses  at  the  Second  Hague  Conference 
(1910). 

White,  A.  D. :  Autobiography  (Parts  relating  to  Hague  Confer- 
ences, 1905). 

Higgins :  The  Hague  Peace  Conferences  and  other  International 
Conferences  concerning  the  Laws  and  Usages  of  War 
(1909). 


Il8  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

XXV.    THE  SECOND  HAGUE  CONFERENCE. 
June  15-October  18,  1907. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Origin.     (Scott:  Texts,  93-1 11.) 

Requested  by  the  Interparliamentary  Union  in  St.  Louis, 

1904. 
Delegation  to  President  Roosevelt. 
Circular  of  Secretary  Hay,  1904. 
Roosevelt  relinquished  the  honor  of  calling  the  conference  to 

the  Czar. 
Czar  issued  invitation  and  program,  April,   1906.     (Scott, 

103- ) 
Additions  to  the  program. 

Limitation  of  armaments.    United  States,  Spain,  Eng- 
land. 
Collection  of  contract  debts.    United  States. 

B.  Place:  The  Hague;  Hall  of  the  Knights  ("De  Ridderzaal"). 

C.  Members. 

More  nations  invited  than  to  first  conference  (South  Ameri- 
can Republics). 
59  states  claimed  sovereignty :  47  were  invited ;  44  accepted, 
representing  more  than  96%  of  the  world's  population. 
21  European  states  (Norway  having  become  independ- 
ent). 
4  Asiatic. 
19  American. 
256  delegates:  i  to  15  per  country;  one  vote  per  country; 
delegates  seated  as  before. 

D.  Festivities. 

Cornerstone  of  the  Palace  of  Peace  laid,  July  30.  (Carnegie.) 
Each  country  to  furnish  something  in  the  way  of  decoration 
for  the  structure.     (D'Estournelles  de  Constant.) 

E.  Organization. 

Conference :  plenary  sessions,  1 1  in  all. 

President:  M.  Nelidow  (Russia). 

Steering  committee :  delegates  of  the  great  powers. 
Commissions. 

I.  Arbitration. 

a.  Projects  for  arbitration  and  prevention  of  war, 
103  members. 

b.  Maritime  prizes,  89  members. 


SECOND  HAGUE  CONFERENCE  IIQ 

2.  War  on  land. 

a.  Laws  and  customs  of  war  on  land,  79  members. 

b.  Rights  and  duties  of  neutrals  on  land;  and  dec- 
laration of  war.    82  members. 

3.  War  on  the  sea. 

a.  Bombardment  of  ports,  and  the  use  of  submarine 
mines,  torpedoes,  etc.,  73  members. 

b.  Belligerent  ships  in  neutral  waters ;  and  the  ap- 
plication of  the  Geneva  Convention  to  naval  war- 
fare, 82  members. 

4.  Maritime  law,  114  members. 
Commission  on  petitions,  5  members. 
Commission  on  editing,  29  members. 

F.  Procedure. 

Much  the  same  as  in  the  first  conference.    The  proceedings 

were  more  open. 
The  Conference  adopted.     (Scott:  Texts,  135-141.) 
13  Conventions 

1  Declaration 

2  Declarations  of  principle. 
4  Opinions. 

I  Desire  (besides  certain  other  similar  measures). 

G.  Achievements. 

I.  Convention  for  the  pacific  settlement  of  disputes. 

Signed  by  35  powers,  representing  83%  of  the  world's 
population. 

Signed  (with  reservation)  by  8  powers,  representing 
13%  of  world's  population. 

Abstained  from  voting,  i  power. 

Accepted  by  43  powers  representing  96%  of  the  world's 
population  (1,668,706,000,  in  1907). 

Improved  the  permanent  court  of  arbitration. 

Either  party  to  a  dispute  may,  without  consulting  the 
other,  declare  its  willingness  to  submit  the  differ- 
ence to  arbitration. 

Arbitration  remained  voluntary  except — 

That  force  is  to  be  used  for  the  collection  of  con- 
tract debts  only  after  arbitration  has  failed  (Con- 
vention II,  Scott:  Texts,  193-198). 
Approved  by  34  nations  representing  68%  of  the 
world's  population.  10  nations  (28%)  did  not- 
vote. 


I20  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

When  prize  is  taken  in  war.  This  is  to  be  tried  before 
the  prize  court  established  by  this  conference 
(Convention  XII,  Scott:  Texts,  288-317). 

Approved  by  31  nations  representing  32%  of  the 
earth's  population. 

Not  voting,  13  nations  representing  64%  of  the 
earth's  population. 

2.  Further  rules  of  warfare  on  land  (Conventions  III,  IV, 

V.     Scott:  Texts,  198-240.     Lecture  XXI). 

3.  Rules  for  maritime  warfare  (Conventions  VI-XI;  XIII. 

Scott:  Texts,  240-288). 
Humanize   naval    warfare,    increase    the   protection   of 
neutrals,  and  attempt  to  "canalize"  hostilities. 

4.  Declaration  against  the  launching  of  explosives  from  bal- 

loons and  air-craft  "until  the  end  of  the  next  confer- 
ence."   Nations  more  cautious  in  signing  than  in  1899. 

5.  The  Conference  "is  unanimous:  i,  in  admitting  the  prin- 

ciple of  compulsory  arbitration ;  2,  in  declaring  that 
certain  disputes,  in  particular  those  relating  to  the  in- 
terpretation and  application  of  the  provisions  of  inter- 
national agreements,  may  be  submitted  to  compulsory 
arbitration  without  any  restrictions."     (Scott,  137.) 

6.  The  Conference  expressed  a  wish  for  a  third  conference 

to  be  "held  within  a  period  corresponding  to  that 
which  has  elapsed  since  the  preceding  conference." 
The  calling  of  this  new  conference  was  taken  out  of 
the  hands  of  any  one  government  and  given  to  an  in- 
ternational committee  which  is  to  meet  for  that  pur- 
pose about  two  years  before  conference  assembles. 
Committee  has  charge  of  preparing  the  program.  Pre- 
liminary steps  were  taken  in  The  Hague  in  February, 
1912,  for  the  summoning  of  the  third  conference  in 

1915- 
H.  Signatures  and  ratifications. 

1.  Signatures,  Scott:  Texts,  336-339. 

2.  Ratifications,  American  Journal  of  International  Law,  5, 

769. 

References 

Same  as  for  preceding  lecture. 

Deuxieme  Conference  de  la  Paix.    Actes  et  documents  (NijhofT, 

1907). 
Wehberg:  Kommentar  zu  d.  Haager  Abkommen  betreflFend  die 

friedliche  Erledigung  internationaler  Streitigkeiten,  vom 

18  Oktober,  1907  (1911). 
Commissions  nationales  de  la  paix  et  preparation  de  la  troisieme 

conference  de  La  Haye  (1911). 


INTERNATIONAL  COURTS  121 


XXVI.    INTERNATIONAL  COURTS. 
(Krehbiel) 

I.  Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration,   1899.      (Scott:  Texts,  pp. 
30-45;  170-188.) 

A.  Administration  of  the  Court. 

1.  Permanent  Administrative  Council  consists  of  diplo- 

matic representatives  accredited  to  The  Hague. 
Organizes      and     administers     the      International 
Bureau. 

2.  International  Bureau ;  record  office  of  court. 

Secretarial  in  character ;  has  custody  of  archives. 

Makes  necessary  preparations  and  gives  its  prem- 
ises for  court  purposes. 

Publishes  the  documents  of  cases  determined  by  the 
Court. 

Expenses  carried  by  signatory  powers  in  proportion 
fixed  by  Universal  Postal  Union. 

B.  Jurisdiction. 

1.  Competent   for   all   arbitration   cases   unless   parties 

agree  to  institute  a  special  tribunal. 

2.  Non-signatory  powers  may  use  court  free. 

C.  Organization. 

1.  Judges.      (See  list  of  in  World  Almanac  1912,  pp. 

126-128.) 

Each  power  selects  four  or  less  persons.  Same  per- 
son ma}^  be  selected  by  several  powers. 

150  selected  up  to  1912. 

Term  six  years ;  renewable. 

2.  Judges  for  any  particular  case. 

Each  disputant  selects  two  judges  from  list  above. 

Only  one  may  be   from   nation   of   disputant 
(1907  amendment). 
These  four  choose  an  umpire. 

Failing  to  agree,  selection  is  entrusted  to  a 
third  power. 

This  failing,  each  party  selects  a  different  pow- 
er and  these  two  determine  the  umpire. 

This  failing,  after  two  months,  each  party  se- 
lects two  judges  from  list  above  (not  na- 
tionals) and  lot  determines  which  of  these  is 
to  be  umpire  (1907). 

3.  Arbitrators  enjoy  diplomatic  privileges  and  immun- 

ities. 


122  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

D.  Operation. 

1.  Preliminaries. 

a.  Agreement  of  nations  necessary  to  bring  case 
before  the  court  (amendment  1907). 

b.  "Compromis"    (text  of  this  agreement)    states 
difference  and  arbitrators'  powers. 

c.  Signatory  powers  have  duty  of  reminding  other 
states  of  court. 

2.  Procedure. 

a.  To  sit  at  The  Hague  unless  some  other  place  be 
selected  by  the  arbitrators  (1907). 

b.  Language  to  be  used  determined  by  the  court. 

c.  Discussions  public  only  if  parties  assent. 

d.  Recorded  in  "proces-verbaux." 

This  supplied  to  the  powers  invited  to  the 
second  Peace  Conference  as  well  as  to  pow- 
ers which  have  adhered  to  the  convention 
(1907). 
e.  Deliberations  of  the  court  private  ("and  remain 
secret,"  1907). 

3.  Award. 

a.  Given  by  majority  vote,  accompanied  by  reasons. 

Minority  may  record  dissent  when  signing. 

b.  Award  is  binding  upon  parties. 

c.  No  appeal  from  the  award. 

d.  Revision  permitted  if: 

(i)  Stipulated  by  "compromis"  and  within 
time  stipulated. 

(2)  New  facts  of  vital  importance  are  discov- 
ered which  were  unknown  at  time  of  award 
to  court  and  party  demanding  revision. 
(Court  determines  that  question,  1907.) 

e.  Drawn  up  in  writing  and  read  at  a  public  meet- 

ing of  the  tribunal,  the  agents  and  counsel 
of  the  parties  being  present. 

4.  Expenses. 

Each  party  pays  its  own  and  an  equal  share  of  the 
court's. 
II.  International  Prize  Court,  1907.     (Scott:  pp.  288-317.) 
A.  Administration. 

1.  The  Administrative  Council  fulfills  with  regard  to  the 

Prize  Court  the  same  functions  as  to  the  Perma- 
nent Court  of  Arbitration  but  only  representatives 
of  contracting  powers  may  be  members  of  it. 

2.  The  International   Bureau  acts   as   registry  to   the 

court. 


INTERNATIONAL  COURTS  1 23 

B.  Jurisdiction. 

Cases  appealed  under  fixed  conditions  after  having  been 
tried  in  national  courts.    No  further  appeal. 

(The  agreements  of  the  Declaration  of  London,  1909, 
will  presumably  be  the  basis  of  decisions.) 

C.  Organization. 

1.  Composed  of  judges  and  deputy  judges  appointed  by 

the  contracting  powers. 

2.  Appointed  for  six  year  term;  renewable;  equal  in 

rank;  seniority. 

3.  15  in  all ;  8  powers  represented  all  the  time :  Germany, 

United  States,  Austria-Hungary,  France,  Great 
Britain,  Italy,  Japan  and  Russia.  Judges  from 
others  sit  "by  rota."     (Scott,  pp.  316-7.) 

4.  Paid  by  International  Bureau.    No  other  compensa- 

tion. 
III.  Central  American  Court  of  Justice,   1907.      (International 
Bureau  of  American  Republics,  Vol.  25,  pp.  1351-7.) 

A.  Administration. 

1.  Court  elects   its   own   officials,   including  president, 

vice-president,  secretary,  and  treasurer. 

2.  Makes  its  own  rules  of  procedure. 

3.  Sits  at  city  of  Cartago  in  Costa  Rica  unless  necessary 

to  move. 

B.  Jurisdiction. 

1.  "All   controversies   or   questions   which   may   arise 

among  them  of  whatsoever  nature  and  no  matter 
what  their  origin  may  be,  in  case  the  respective 
Departments  of  Foreign  Affairs  should  not  have 
been  able  to  reach  an  understanding." 

2.  Also  international  questions  which  may  arise  between 

a  Central  American  government  and  a  foreign 
government. 

3.  Questions    between    an    individual    and    a    Central 

American  government. 

4.  Shall  also  have  jurisdiction  over  the  conflicts  which 

may  arise  between  the  legislative,  judicial  and 
executive  powers. 

C.  Organization. 

1.  Five  justices,  named  by  the  legislative  body  of  the  re- 

spective powers  and  also  two  substitutes  from 
each. 

2.  Appointed  for  five  years  and  can  carry  on  no  other 

work  during  period. 


ia4  LECTURES  ON  INtKRNATlONAL  CONCILIATION 

3,  All   five   necessary    for  a   quorum.    Agreement  of 

three  or  more  necessary  for  a  dedsiwi, 

4.  Judgments  communicated  to  all  five  Republics,  Bind- 

ing and  final.    Salaries  paid  by  treasurer  of  the 
court.    Expenses  borne  equally  by  all  nations, 
[TWs  agreement  is  valid  for  ten  years,] 

IV,  Proposed  Court  of  Arbitral  Justice,  1907,    (Scott:  Texts  pp, 
141-154), 

A.  Administration, 

Administered  by  International  Bureau, 

B.  Jurisdictitm, 

I.  Cases  to  be  decided  on  their  merits, 
a.  Only  signatory  powers  can  use  it, 
C  Organization, 

1,  Onnposed  of  judges  and  deputy  judges  selected  from 

persons   of   high   standing  in   their   respective 
countries. 
Method  of  appointment  left  to  individual  nations. 

2,  Term  of  judges  12  years;  equal  in  rank;  seniority. 

3,  Three  judges  selected  annually  by  others  form  dde- 

gation  to  carry  the  administrative  work  of  court, 

4,  Judge  not  to  act  in  case  where  his  country  is  a 

Utigant. 

5,  Salaries  paid  by  International  Bureau.  No  other  com- 

pensation permitted, 

6,  Enjoy  diplomatic  privil^es  and  immunities. 
D,  Procedure. 

I,  Court  to  meet  at  fixed  times  and  sit  until  business  is 

finished. 
a.  Sits  at  The  Hague  and  cannot  be  transferred  unless 

absolutely  cSliged  by  circumstances, 
3.  A  report  of  the  doings  of  the  court  drawn  up  every 

war  by  the  delegation  and  sent  to  ccmtracting 

powers. 


References 

Note  the  references  in  the  lecture. 

Ozanam :  La  prisdiction  intemationale  des  prises  maritime. 

Berthon :  La  jurisdiction  des  prises  maritimes. 

de  Caqueray:  Le  jugement  d«s  prises  maritimes, 

Scott:  Hague  Peace  Conferences  (i909)»  I»  423-464« 


CASES  IN  INTERNATIONAL  COURTS  125 


XXVII.  CASES  DETERMINED  OR  PENDING  IN  INTER- 
NATIONAL COURTS. 

(Krehbiel) 

Before  the  Permanent  Court  of  Arbitration  at  The  Hague. 

1.  United  States  of  America  vs.  Mexico. 

Referred  by  Treaty  concluded  at  Washington,  May  22,  1902. 
Subject:    The  Pious  Funds  of  the  Californias. 
Decision  of  Court  given  October  14,  1902. 

a.  Documents. 

Recueil  des  Actes  et  Protocoles  concemant  le  Litige 
du  "Fonds  Pieux  des  Californies."  La 
Haye,  1902. 

Amer,  J.  Intern.  Law  1908,  vol.  2:  893-902. 

U.  S.  Govt.  Doc.  4377,  No.  646. 

U.  S.  Statutes  at  Large,  vol.  32,  Part  II,  1916. 

b.  References. 

J.  W.  Foster:  Hague  Arbitrations,  137. 
R.  of  R's.  vol.  26:  419-24. 
Intern.  Year  Book  1902,  35. 

2.  British  Isles,  Germany  and  Italy,  vs.  Venezuela. 
Referred  by  Treaty  concluded  at  Washington,  May  7,  1903. 
Subject:  The  Affairs  of  Venezuela. 

Decision  of  Court  given  February  22,  1904. 

a.  Documents. 

Recueil  des  Actes  et  Protocoles  concernant  le  Litige 

entre  L'AlIemagne,  L'Angleterre,  et  LTtalie  et 

Venezuela.     La  Haye,   1904. 
Venezuela  Arbitrations  of  1903.     Ralston's  Report 

(1904). 
U.  S.  58th  Congress,  3d  Session,  Senate  Doc.  119 

(Serial  number,  4769). 
Amer.  J.  Intern.  Law,  vol.  2:  907. 

b.  References. 

Cambridge  Modern  History,  XII,  695. 

Intern.  Year  Book,  1909,  37. 

Amer.  J.  Intern.  Law,  vol.  3 :  436;  985. 

Arena,  31 :  583-7. 

Jacobson :  Le  premier  grand  proces  international  a 

la  Cour  de  La  Haye  (1904), 
World's  Work  5  :  3038-40. 


126  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

N.  Amer.  177:  801-11. 

Independent,  61 :  1472-5. 

Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  (Benoist)  Jan.  i,  1903, 

229-40. 
Independent,  55 :  2373,  2560-2,  2612-16,  Editorial 

2713-4. 
Independent,  56 :  487-8. 
3.  British  Isles,  France  and  Germany  vs.  Japan. 

Referred  by  Treaty  concluded  at  Tokyo,  August  28,  1902. 
Question  in  Dispute :    The  House  Tax  in  Japan. 
Decision  of  the  Court  given  May  22,  1905. 

a.  Documents. 

Recueil  des  Actes  et  Protocoles  concernant  le  Litige 
entre  L'AUemagne,  La  France,  et  La  Grande 
Bretagne,  et  Le  Japon.    La  Haye,  1904. 

Amer.  J.  Intern.  Law,  1908,  vol.  2:  915. 

Japan  Weekly  Mail,  1905,  43  (Extract). 

Great  Britain,  Parliamentary  Papers,  1905,  vol. 
cm,  cd.  2583. 

Great  Britain,  Parliamentary  Papers,  1904,  vol.  CX, 
cd.  1810. 

b.  References. 

Annual  Register,  1902,  393. 
Japan  Weekly  Mail,  1905,  555-6.    591. 
London  Times,  Weekly  Edition,  1902,  632. 
London  Times,  Weekly  Edition,  1904,  613;  757. 
London  Times,  Weekly  Edition,  1905,  323. 
4.  British  Isles  vs.  France. 

Referred  by  Arbitral  Compromise  at  London,  October  13, 

1904. 
Question  in  Dispute:    The  "Boutres"  (native  craft)  of  Mus- 
cat. 
Decision  of  Court  given  August  8,  1905. 

a.  Documents. 

Recueil  des  Actes  et  Protocoles  concernant  le  Dif- 
ferend  entre  La  France  et  La  Grande  Bretagne  a 
propos  des  boutres  de  Mascate.    La  Haye,  1905. 

Amer.  J.  Inter.  Law,  1908,  vol.  2:  923. 

b.  References. 

Great    Britain,    Parliamentary    Papers,    1905,    vol. 

cm,  cd.  2380. 
Great   Britain,    Parliamentary   Papers,    1906,   vol. 

CXXVI,  cd.  2736. 


CASES  IN  INTERNATIONAL  COURTS  1 27 

5.  France  vs.  Germany. 

Referred  by  Protocol  signed  at  Berlin,  August  lo,  1908. 
Question  in  Dispute :  The  Deserters  at  Casablanca. 
Decision  of  Court  given  May  2,  1909. 

a.  Documents. 

(Published  by  the  Bureau  International  de  la  Cour 
Permanente  d' Arbitrage.  Out  of  print;  not  in 
the  library.) 

b.  References. 

Intern.  Year  Book  1909,  36. 

Amer.  J.  Intern.  Law,  vol.  3 :  176,  698,  755. 

Outlook  92 :  305-6. 

6.  Norway  vs.  Sweden. 

Referred  by  a  Convention  between  the  two  countries,  March 

14,  1908. 
Question  in  Dispute:    The  delimitation    of    the    maritime 

frontier. 
Decision  of  the  Court  given  October  23,  1909. 

a.  Documents. 

(Published  by  the  Bureau  International.  Out  of 
print ;  not  in  the  library, ) 

b.  References. 

London  Times,  Weekly  Edition,  1909,  692. 

7.  British  Isles  vs.  United  States. 

Referred  by  Agreement,  January  27,  1909. 
Question  in  Dispute :    The  Newfoundland  Fisheries. 
Decision  of  Court  given  September  7,  1910, 

a.  Documents. 

North  Atlantic  Coast  Fisheries  Tribunal  of  Arbitra- 
tion.   The  Hague,  1910. 

Minutes  of  Conference,  U.  S.  and  Great  Britain, 
Jan.  1911.  Treaty  series,  554,  Dept.  of  State, 
Serial  Number,  5836. 

Anderson :  North  Atlantic  Fisheries  Report  .  .  . 
Senate  Doc.  806. 

North  Atlantic  Fisheries  Arbitration.  6  vols.  State 
Department   (Govt.   Printing  Office,   1911?). 

Root's  Fisheries  Arbitration  Argument  (edited  by 
Scott,  1912). 

b.  References. 

Amer.  J.  Intern.  Law,  Supplement  2 :  327. 

Amer.  J.  Intern.  Law,  vol.  2 :  823. 

Amer.  J.  Intern.  Law,  Supplement  3:  168,  178. 

Amer.  J.  Intern.  Law,  vol.  4:  903. 

Intern.  Year  Book,  1907,  42 ;  552. 

Intern.  Year  Book,  1909,  36. 

Intern.   Year   Book,    1910,  43-44. 


h 


128  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

New  Eng.  Mag.,  43  :  265-76. 

R.  of  R's.,  41 :  718. 

Independent,  69:  8-13. 

Cambridge  Modern  History,  vol.  XII,  617. 

Chaut.,  60 :  326-7. 

Lake  Mohonk  Report,  1911,  242. 

8.  United  States  vs.  Venezuela. 

Referred  to  arbitration,  February  13,  1909. 
Question  in  Dispute:  The  Orinoco  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany. 
Decision  of  Court  given  October  25,  1910. 

a.  Documents. 

Protocoles  des  Seances  du  Tribunal  d' Arbitrage 
.  .  .  au  sujet  .  .  .  de  la  Compagnie  des  bateaux 
a  vapeur  "Orinoco,"  La  Haye,  1910. 

b.  References. 

Intern.  Year  Book,  1910,  44. 

Outlook,  96 :  886. 

Amer.  J.  Intern.  Law,  Suppl.  3 :  224. 

9.  British  Isles  vs.  France. 

Referred  by  Protocol  signed  October  25,  1910. 
Question  in  Dispute :    Case  of  Savarkar. 
Decision  of  Court  given  February  24,  1911. 

a.  Documents. 

Protocoles  des  Seances  et  Sentence  du  Tribunal 
d'Arbitrage  ...  La  Haye,  1911. 

b.  References. 

Outlook  97 :523. 

London  Times,  Weekly  Edition,  1911,  27;  44. 

10.  Russia  vs.  Turkey. 

Referred  by  Compromise,  August  5,  1910. 

Question   in   Dispute:   Claims   for   indemnity   for   losses   in 

Russo-Turkish  War,  1877-8. 
The  question  is  expected  to  be  determined  during  the  present 

year  (1912). 

11.  Italy  vs.  Peru. 

Question  in  Dispute :  Financial  claim. 

The  question  is  expected  to  be  determined  during  the  present 
year  (1912). 

12.  Bolivia  vs.  Peru. 

Protocol  on  boundary  status  quo  reported  March  31.  1911. 
References. 

Bull.  Intern.  Bureau  Am.  Rep.  vol.  30,  152. 
Fiore:    Remarks    on    the    Arbitral    Sentence    Pro- 
nounced by  the  President  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public on  July  9,  1909,  on  the  Boundary  Question 
between  Bolivia  and  Peru  (1911). 


CASES  IN  INTERNATIONAL  COURTS  I29 

13.  Dominican  Republic  vs.  Haiti. 
Subject  of  Dispute :    Boundary. 
References. 

Bulletin  of  the  Pan-American  Union,  1911,  vol.  32, 

937;  1073- 
[Italy  has  proposed  to  submit  the  question  of  the  seizure  of  the 
French  steamers  Carthage  and  Manouba.] 

References 

Bureau  International:  Rapport  du  conseil  administratif  sur  le 
travaux  de  la  Cour  Permanente  d'Arbitrage,  sur  le  func- 
tionnement  des  services  administratifs  at  sur  les  depenses 
pendant  I'annee  1909. 

Tryon:  The  Hague  Peace  System  in  Operation.  Yale  Law 
Review,  Nov.  191 1.  Reprinted  as  pamphlet  by  Mass, 
Peace  Society,  191 1. 

Before  the  Central  American  Court  of  Justice. 

1.  Honduras  vs.  Guatemala  and  Salvador,  December  19,  1908. 

a.  Documents. 

Bull.  Intern.  Bureau  Amer.  Rep.  vol.  28:  267. 

b.  References. 

Intern.  Year  Book,  1909,  36. 

Intern.  Year  Book,  1910,  46. 

Am.  J.  of  Intern.  Law,  Oct.  1908,  p.  835. 

Am.  J.  of  Intern.  Law,  Apr.  1909,  p.  434. 

2.  Diaz,  citizen  of  Nicaragua  vs.  Guatemala,  1909. 

Dismissed  on  ground  that  Diaz  should  have  resorted  to  local 
courts  in  Guatemala. 
References. 

Intern.  Year  Book,  1910,  46. 
Amer.  J.  Intern.  Law,  April,  1909. 
3.  Salvador  Cerda  (citizen  of  Nicaragua)  vs.  Costa  Rica,  1911. 
Suit  for  damages  on  account  of  illegal  detention. 
Dismissed  on  the  ground  that  Cerda's  claim  was  not  sub- 
stantiated. 
References. 

Annals  of  the  Central  American  Court  of  Justice,  I, 
No.  3,  Oct.  1911. 


130  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


XXVIII.    ARGUMENTS  AGAINST  PEACE. 
(Krehbiel) 

A.  Evils  inherent  in  the  ideal  of  universal  peace. 

1.  Disarmament  would  disorganize  all  economic  conditions. 

a.  Vast  numbers  of  workers    (soldiers  and  makers  of 

war  materials)  would  be  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment. 

b.  Inventive  genius  would  be  deprived  of  its  readiest 

market. 

2.  The  enfeebling  or  disappearance  of  patriotism. 

Anti-patriotism.     Herveism. 

3.  The  extinction  of  courage,  producing  an  effeminate  race. 

4.  The  supreme  arbitral  court  would  fail  to  give  justice  in 

many  cases :  graft  and  influence. 

5.  Nations  would  suffer  injustice  without  means  of  redress: 

"the  peace  of  unrighteousness." 

B.  War  is  inevitable. 

1.  History  is  one  series  of  wars. 

3357  years:  from  1496  B.  C.  to  1861  A.  D. 
3130  years  of  war  in  that  time. 
227  years  of  peace. 

Thirteen  years  of  war  to  one  of  peace. 
(Bloch:  Future  of  War,  Ixv.) 

2.  Human  nature  is  unchangeable. 

a.  Men  consider  fighting  as  the  honorable  and  manly 

way    of    settling    their    differences.       (Ruskin: 
Crown  of  Wild  Olive,  "War.") 

b.  Human  nature  remains  impulsive. 

c.  Even  if  men  are  becoming  more  deliberate,  they  will 

always    have    convictions,    for  which    they    will 
fight. 

3.  Universal  peace  presupposes  the  same  standard  of  civili- 

zation for  all  nations ;  and  homogeneity  within  the 
nations.  As  long  as  there  are  "inferior"  peoples, 
superior  peoples  will  take  advantage  of  them. 

C.  War  and  militarism  are  beneficial  on  the  whole. 

I.  Militarism  furnishes  an  opportunity  for — 
o.  Education  of  the  private. 
b.  Development  of  national  unity  and  patriotism, 
r.  National  physical  training. 


ARGUMENTS  AGAINST  PEACE  I3I 

d.  Moral  training 

For  the  nation :  teaches  the  nation  how  to  put  the 
welfare  of  the  nation  ahead  of  private  ease. 

For  the  soldier:  he  is  under  discipline  at  the  time 
he  most  needs  it.  (Failure  to  make  use  of  this 
opportunity  is  an  abuse  of  the  system  and  should 
be  corrected.  Immorality  is  not  limited  to  bar- 
racks.) 

2.  Armaments  are  a  national  insurance  of  business  against 

war.  Granting  that  the  rate  of  insurance  is  high,  the 
protection  to  business  etc.  justifies  the  cost.  The 
armed  peace. 

3.  War  is  a  divine  ordeal. 

"War  conforms  to  the  order  of  things  established  by 
God." — (Moltke,   Seve:  Cours  .  .  .  145.) 

Stronger  nation  does  not  always  prevail :  American 
Revolution. 

4.  War  is  justifiable  in  many  cases. 

a.  When  it  resists  aggression;  armament  is  preparation 

for  this. 

b.  When  it  protects  citizens  and  commerce. 

c.  When  it  promotes  justice:  Spanish-American  war. 

d.  When  it  is  the  lesser  of  two  evils. 

e.  When  it  is  the  last  resource  and  solves  problems  that 

cannot  be  solved  otherwise.  Men  want,  and  must 
have,  questions  settled  one  way  or  the  other  at 
times. 

5.  War  is  the  means  of  human  progress. 

a.  War  is  the  medium  through  which  the  law  of  evolu- 
tion works  upon  peoples.  In  the  case  of  states,  as 
of  individuals,  the  fittest  survive.  Social  Dar- 
winism. To  be  "first  in  peace"  a  nation  must  be 
"first  in  war." 

"If  nations  ceased,  the  one  to  take  advantage  of  the 
other's  weakness,  the  processes  of  biological  law 
and  therefore  of  evolution  would  come  to  an 
end." — (Wyatt,  Nineteenth  Century,  45,  216  f.) 

"War  has  been  the  method  of  accomplishing  the 
social  evolution  of  mankind." — (Wyatt,  lb.) 

"May  God  deliver  us  from  the  inertia  of  European 
peoples  and  make  us  a  present  of  a  good  war, 
fresh  and  joyous,  which  shall  traverse  Europe 
with  fury,  pass  her  peoples  through  the  sieve 
and  rid  us  of  that  scrofulous  chaff  which  fills 
every  place  and  makes  it  too  narrow  for  others, 
so  that  we  can  again  live  a  decent  human  life 
where  a  pestilential  air  now  suffocates  us." — 
(Heinrich  Leo,  1853. — Seve:  Cours  .  .  .  170.) 


132  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

War  is  necessary  to  prevent  overpopulation. 
The  harm  to  a  race  through  loss  of  life  in  war  is 
negligible. 
Harm  of  this  kind  can  come  only  when  soldiers 
are   selected   for  their  physical   and  mental 
capacity;    which   has    not   always   been   the 
case:  volunteers  or  mercenaries  were  usual 
except  among  the  early  Romans,  and  recently 
since  the  adoption  of  universal  compulsory 
service  in  Europe. 
Percentage    of    killed    and    wounded    is    very 

small  on  the  average:  Lecture  XIII. 
The  wounded  may  still  make  good  fathers. 
The  mothers  are  as  fit  as  ever. 
Economic    processes    also    cost    lives,    but    must 
none  the  less  continue. 
h.  It  unifies  peoples:  Germany,  Italy,  Europe  generally 
after  Napoleon. 

c.  It  arouses  all  the  latent  energies  and  powers  of  a 

people  in  a  way  that  no  economic  or  other  strug- 
gle could.     Golden  ages  in  literature. 

d.  It  is  the  final,   and   frequently  the   only   means   by 

which  new  ideals  can  secure  their  acceptance : 
Reformation;  American  independence;  abolition 
of  slavery. 

References  : 

Wyatt:  War  as  a  Test  of  National  Value,  Nineteenth  Century, 

45,  2i6f. 
Luce:  Benefits  of  War,  North  American,  153:  6y2i. 
Clausewitz:  On  War.     (3  ed.  Translated  by  Graham,  1873.) 
Hart:  Vindication  of  War.     Nineteenth  Century,  Aug.  1911,  p. 

226.  ^ 

Maude:  War  and  the  World's  Life  (1907). 
Lea:  The  Valor  of  Ignorance   (1909). 
Brunetiere :  Le  mensonge  du  pacificisme:  Revue  de  Deux  Mondes, 

July,  1905,  278-95. 
Ruskin:  Crown  of  Wild  Olive,  "War"  (1889). 
Vane :  Pax  Brittanica. 

V.  Stengel:  Weltstaat  und  Friedensproblem  (1909). 
Carter :  Interdependence  of  Political  and  Military  Policies.    North 

American  Review,  194:  837. 
Palmer:  Insurance  of  Peace.    Scribner's,  51 :  186. 
Excubitor:   The   Blessings   of   Naval   Armaments.      Fortnightly 

Review,^85 :  88-96. 
The  Intellectual  Charm  of  War,  Spect.,  58:  542. 
Mahan:  The  Moral  Aspect  of  War. 

Whewell:  Elements  of  MoraHty  (1864),  "The  Rights  of  Man." 
Moltke,  in  Molinari :  Grandeur  et  decadence  de  la  guerre  (1898), 

249-58. 
Collier :  On  the  Way  to  India.    Scribner's,  49 :  29-40. 
Bernhardi:  Deutschland  und  der  nachste  Krieg  (1912). 


ARGUMENTS  AGAINST  PEACE  EXAMINED  I33 


XXIX.     THE  ARGUMENTS  AGAINST  PEACE 
EXAMINED. 

(Jordan) 

Rebuttal  of  the  Arguments  Advanced  in  Lecture  XXVIII. 
(Follows  the  outline  of  the  previous  lecture.) 

A.  The  evils  inherent,  in  universal  peace  are  inherent  in  human 

nature;  not  one  of  them  can  be  remedied  by  war.  Uni- 
versal peace  will  enable  men  to  strive  against  remediable 
evils,  and  attack  them  by  education  and  better  breeding, 
eugenics  and  euthenics.  Knowledge,  not  force  of  arms, 
is  power. 

1.  The  alleged  disorganization  of  economic  conditions  will 

be   temporary;   and   will   be   followed   by  better   or- 
ganization. 
The  same  argument  is  used  against  all  reforms. 

a.  In  honorable  production  there  is  "always  room  for 

the  man  of  force,  and  he  makes  room  for  many." 

b.  Inventive  genius  can  find  play  in  useful  devices.    Bet- 

ter laws  would  give  better  markets. 

2.  The  patriotism  endangered  by  peace  is  based  on  greed, 

fear  and  hate.  Patriotism  which  does  not  involve  love 
of  justice,  and  does  not  include  regard  for  common 
humanity,  is  without  moral  or  civic  value. 

3.  There  is  no  truth  in  the  claim  that  war  produces  or  fosters 

courage.  It  is  merely  the  occasion  in  which  innate 
courage  displays  itself. 

4.  Injustice  might  arise  in  an  arbitral  court,  but  could  be 

corrected  with  time.  Injustice  always  arises  from  the 
arbitrament  of  war.  "War  is  never  a  solution,  it  is  an 
aggravation." — (Disraeli.) 

5.  Nations  suffer  without  redress  under  the  rule  of  force. 

War  is  the  creator  of  the  "peace  of  unrighteousness." 

Differences    between   nations   usually    involve    minor 

•    matters ;  war  threatens  the  very  existence  of  a  people. 

B.  War  is  no  more  "inevitable"  than  slavery,  religious  persecu- 

tion, and  other  evils  resulting  from  abuses  of  collective 

power. 
Struggle  has  many  other  forms,  both  in  play  and  earnest, 

which  have  replaced  war. 
War  now  confined  to  a  special  class  as  a  profession  or  trade. 


134  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

1.  History  is   full  of  evils   from  which   education,  science, 

invention  and  religion  slowly  emancipate  man. 

2.  Human  nature  is  unchangeable  in  fundamental  aspects. 
Hatred  of  strangers  a  matter  of  bad  education ;  desire  to 

rob  and  murder  result  of  bad  moral  training. 
Nature  of  war,  of  government,  of  society,  of  the  attitude 
toward    lust,    robbery    and    murder    are    always 
changing. 
Man  growing  more  tolerant,   more  cosmopolitan,   more 
self-controlled. 
a.  Men  once  considered  the  duel  manly  and  the  ordeal 
by  battle  righteous.    Ruskin's  concessions  to  war 
a  result  of  bad  education,  and  not  borne  out  by 
the  facts.    (See  Sumner:  War  and  Other  Essays.) 
h.  Men  are  impulsive.    Modern  war  rests  not  on  impulse 
but  on  long  planned  hope  for  gain.    Nations  allow- 
ing their  impulses  to  rush  them  into  war  stand 
little  chance  in  modern  war. 
c.  The  way  to  fight  for  convictions  is  through  the  ma- 
chinery of  democracy,  not  with  bombs  and  dread- 
noughts.   Luther  fought  for  convictions,  and  one 
of  these  was  that  "force  of  arms  must  be  kept 
far  from  matters  of  the  Gospel." 
The  fight  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  abolition  of 
open  saloons,  for  civil  service  reform,  for  justice, 
sanitation,  conservation,   for  the  suppression  of 
white  slavery  do  not  demand  swords  nor  any  of 
the  machinery  of  war. 
No  modern  war   (except  civil  war)   is  a  fight  for 
convictions.     Civil  war  arises  from  injustice  of 
the  rule  of  force  the  last  resort  of  "murdered, 
mangled  liberty."     It  cannot  be  avoided  by  sup- 
porting standing  armies. 

3.  Universal  peace  demands  as  a  final  result  that  nations  cease 

to  be  powers  and  become  jurisdictions,  like  the  several 
states  of  the  United  States. 

Universal  desire  for  fair  play  would  eliminate  wars  for 
spoliation. 

Imperial  wars  mostly  evil ;  some  bring  good ;  some  bring 
mixed  results.  The  right  to  conquer  or  correct 
small  or  weak  nations  cannot  be  trusted  to  single 
initiative. 

Imperial  war  the  last  refuge  of  militarism.  An  argu- 
ment against  it  is  that  no  nation  engaging  in  it 
(Turkey  perhaps  excepted)  has  ever  frankly  des- 
cribed its  motives. 

Some  who  call  themselves  pacifists  tolerate  it.  Others, 
more  justly,  condemn  all  use  of  force  in  politics. 


ARGUMENTS  AGAINST  PEACE  EXAMINED  I.:^5 

C.  War  and  militarism  are  evil  whether  as  a  means  or  an  end. 

1.  a.  Militarism   furnishes  at  great  expense  a  very  poor 

education  for  the  private. 

b.  It  develops  a  spurious  patriotism  because  both  means 

and  end  are  bad. 

c.  It  gives  a  very  ineffective  physical  training,  too  late  in 

life,  at  too  great  an  expense,  and  tainted  with 
barrack  diseases.  It  fosters  arbitrary  power  and 
unquestioning  subservience.  It  endangers  govern- 
ment through  the  reaction  against  its  injustice 
(example:  Herveism)  ;  and  some  forms  of 
socialism  and  anarchism  are  a  reaction  from 
militarism. 

d.  Its  moral  training  glosses  evil  with  self-righteousness. 

The  moral  damage  of  war  is  just  as  definite  as  its 
physical  damage  and  co-extensive  with  it.  (See 
Walsh:  Moral  Damage  of  War.) 

Its  patriotism  and  self-denial  are  partisan. 

The  soldier  is  under  bad  discipline  at  a  time  later 
than  that  in  which  discipline  is  useful. 

Immorality  spreads  from  the  barracks.  The  army  is 
the  centre  of  the  spread  of  venereal  disease. 
The  white  slaver  a  recognized  function  of  some 
armies  (See:  The  Queen's  Daughters  in  India). 

2.  Armaments  make  for  peace  only  by  making  for  bank- 

ruptcy and  throwing  the  control  of  nations  into  the 
hands   of  bankers.     The   greater  the  armament  the 
greater  the  danger  of  clash. 
A  rate  of  insurance  against  war  destruction  could  be 
obtained  at  a  thousandth  part  of  the  cost  if  private 
companies  are  used.  / 

The  armed  peace  is  a  part  of  war. 
T,.  The  claim  that  war  is  a  "divine  ordeal"  is  a  meaningless 
blasphemy.     So  is  torture,  murder,  robbery,  rape. 
We  onlv  know  what  God  ordains  by  what  he  permits. 
We  know  that  as  man  rises  into  His  likeness  he  puts 
aside  one  after  another  the  evils  of  selfishness  and 
cruelty.    His  life  is  made  beautiful  and  sweet  by 
self-devotion  and  by  self-restraint,  not  by  killing 
nor  by  robbing  individually  or  collectively.    The 
old  commandment  "Thou  shalt  not  kill"  is  still 
in  force. 
If  the  stronger  nation  does  not  prevail  it  is  because,  for 
one    reason    or   another,    half-heartedness,    debt, 
absence  of  a  base  of  supplies,  it  was  not  really  the 
stronger.     Providence  is  notoriously  "on  the  side 
of  strong  battalions."     In  the  American  Revolu- 
tion the  colonial  struggle  was  an  incident  in  a 
European  conflict  which  prevented  England  from 
showing  her  real  strength  in  the  colonies. 


136  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

4.  War  may  be  justifiable,  when  inevitable.     Granting  that 

past  wars  were  inevitable  is  not  admitting  that  future 
wars  are  unavoidable  (Courtney  of  Penwith:  Peace 
or  War  ?) .  "All  war  is  bad ;  some  worse  than  others." 
—  (FrankHn.) 

a.  War  may  be  justifiable  when  it  resists  unwarranted 

aggression  which  cannot  be  met  in  any  other  way. 
Armament  as  a  preparation  for  imaginary  aggres- 
sion from  no  conceivable  quarter  is  not  justifi- 
able; it  is  an  injurious  waste. 

b.  When  did  war  protect  citizens  and  commerce  ?    There 

may  have  been  cases,  but  they  are  mainly  pre- 
texts. 

c.  When  it  promotes  justice  attainable  in  no  other  way. 

The  Spanish  American  a  wrong  use  of  force  as 
Spain  had  already  acceded  to  all  our  demands, 
our  Embassador,  General  Woodford,  having  se- 
cured for  Cuba  the  autonomy  which  Canada 
possesses,  and  an  agreement  to  arbitrate  all 
differences,  the  Maine  incident  included.  What- 
ever the  original  motive,  the  war  was  actually 
waged  solely  in  the  interest  of  local  politics  and 
the  desire  of  exploitation. 

d.  When  war  is  the  lesser  of  two  evils,  consider  the 

opposed  evil  and  count  the  cost. 

e.  Arbitration  offers  a  better,  simpler,  and  more  honor- 

able settlement  than  war.  War  settles  nothing 
save  the  fact  that  one  or  both  sides  may  be  help- 
less.   Better  leave  some  things  unsettled. 

5.  War  bears  but  one  relation  to  progress.    With  the  killing 

of  men  the  barriers  men  have  erected  may  be  swept 

away. 

a.  The  "law  of  evolution"  is  simply  the  expression  of  the 

relation  of  cause  and  effect.    In  the  killing  of  weak 

peoples  it  needs  no  help  of  ours.     In  so  far  as 

man  improves  it,  it  is  through  eugenic  influences 

(selecting  the  best  for  the  ends  of  breed)   and 

euthenic  influences  (giving  better  nurture,  better 

education,  better  morals). 

War  reverses  both  of  these,  producing  dysgenics 

•  (the  condition  of  being  ill-born)  and  dysthenics 

(the  condition  of  bad  environment). 

To  "clean  the  slate"  by  murder  and  arson  may  leave 

room  for  a  new  people  and  new  institutions.    Rut 

all  the  elements  of  progress  belong  to  constructive 

or  peace  influences.    Destruction  never  builds  up. 


ARGUMENTS  AGAINST  PEACE  EXAMINED  137 

The  desire  for  "good  war  fresh  and  joyous"  is  the 
criminal's  wish  for  a  "wide  open  town." 

The  reversed  selection  of  war  is  not  a  negligible 
factor.  True,  soldiers  are  not  always  the  best; 
but  did  ever  a  general  try  to  enlist  the  weakest 
and  the  worst? 

The  killed  and  wounded  on  the  field  but  a  small  part 
of  the  losses  of  war.  (Population  of  the  Empire 
cut  down  from  sixteen  to  six  millions  in  Thirty 
Years  War.) 

The  percentage  of  men  murdered,  of  women  stolen, 
is  small  in  civic  life ;  but  we  do  not  tolerate  mur- 
der and  rape  on  that  account. 

The  wounded  may  survive.  That  there  has  not  been 
an  equal  reversal  Of  selection  among  women  is 
the  salvation  of  nations. 

Economic  processes,  when  destructive,  do  not  exist 
for  the  purpose  of  destruction.  If  so,  they,  like 
war,  should  be  suppressed.  Civilization  demands 
elimination  of  needless  risk.  In  any  event,  the 
wide-awake  man  has  greater  chance  of  escaping 
from  dangers  in  economic  pursuits  than  the  slug- 
gard; in  war  this  is  not  true,  but  is  reversed  if 
anything. 

"Social  Darwinism"  is  the  theory  that  the  strong 
races  should  exterminate  the  weak  ones.  This 
selfish  idea  has  no  foundation  in  "Darwinism," 
nor  in  morals.  "The  white  man's  burden"  is  too 
often  "a.  device  to  fill  the  white  man's  pocket." — 
(James  Bryce.) 

After  a  battle  "you  can  never  be  exactly  the  same. 
You  have  been  made  sick  by  tasting  a  dangerous 
poison.  Great  soldiers  have  often  told  their  men 
after  great  battles  that  they  have  tasted  the  salt 
of  life.  The  salt  of  life !  Is  it  true?  .  .  .  For  it 
can  be  nothing  but  the  salt  of  death  which  has  lain 
for  a  brief  instant  on  the  tongue  of  every  soldier, 
.  — a  revolting  salt  which  the  soldier  refuses  to 
swallow  and  only  is  compelled  to  with  strange 
cries  and  demonlike  mutterings.  Sometimes,  poor 
mortal,  all  his  struggles  and  his  oaths  are  in  vain. 
The  dead  salt  is  forced  down  his  throat  and  he 
dies.  The  very  fortunate  have  only  an  acrid  taste, 
which  defies  analysis,  left  them.  ...  It  is  a  very 
subtle  poison  which  may  lie  hidden  in  the  blood 
for  many  months  and  many  years.  I  believe  it  is 
a  terrible  thing." — (Weale:  Indiscreet  Letters 
from  Peking,  p.  440.) 


138  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

b.  The  unification  of  people  into  "powers"  is  a  movement 

backward.  A  just  and  honorable  state  cannot  be 
a  "power,"  using  physical  force  on  other  states. 
Its  proper  function,  that  of  a  "jurisdiction." 

c.  The  "golden  ages  of  literature"  are  a  delusion.    The 

real  sequel  of  war  is  chronic  national  weakness 
through  debt  and  through  the  extinction  of  strong 
men. 
Disorder  is  not  growth,  nor  is  the  "lime-light"  an 
index  of  national  progress. 

d.  It  is  the  curse  of  the  world  that  the  righteous  ideal 

has  been  forced  to  degrade  itself  by  war.  We 
look  for  a  better  state  of  society  in  which  men 
shall  be  free  to  think  and  act  justly,  without  en- 
countering and  overcoming  the  brute  force  of  war. 

The  antidote  to  war  is  democracy. 

If  "government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the 
people  perish  from  the  earth,"  it  will  be  because 
of  war,  because  order  and  cooperation  "go  down 
in  unreason,  anarchy  and  blood." 


arguments  against  peace  examined  139 

References 
Novicow:  War  and  its  Alleged  Benefits  (1911). 
[Hirst]  :  Arbiter  in  Council  (1906). 
Angell  (Lane)  :  The  Great  Illusion  (1910). 
Jefferson:  The  Delusion  of  Militarism  (Pamphlet,  191 1). 
Jordan:  War  and  Manhood  (1910). 
Courtney  of  Penwith:  Peace  or  War?     Contemp.,  96,  385-400; 

513-26  (also  pamphlet). 
Atkinson :  Twelve  Reasons  Why  War  is  Hateful  and  Arbitration 

Preferable  (1900). 
Showerman:  Peace  and  the  Professor   (Pamphlet). 
Richet:  Le  passe  de  la  guerre  et  I'avenir  de  la  paix  (1907). 
Molinari:  Grandeur  et  decadence  de  la  guerre  (1898). 
Seve:  Cours  d'enseignement  pacifiste  (1910). 
Novicow:  Critique  du  darwinisme  sociale   (1907). 
Stillwell:  Universal  Peace — War  is  Mesmerism   (1911). 
Walsh:  The  Moral  Damage  of  War  (1906). 
Andrew  and  Bushnell:  The  Queen's  Daughters  in  India  (3  ed. 

1899). 
Sumner:  War  and  Other  Essays  (1911). 
Novicow:    Die   Gerechtigkeit   und   die    Entfaltung   des   Lebens, 

251-366. 
Bloch:  Der  Krieg  (1899),  VI,  304-347. 
Tolstoi:  War  and  Peace  (1889). 
Helps:  Friends  in  Council  (1861),  I,  chap.  2. 
Kirkpatrick:  War — What  For?  (1911.    Socialistic.) 
Sumner:  Addresses  on  War  (1904). 
Dymond :  War. 

Ralston:  Some  Supposed  Just  Causes  of  War.     (Pamphlet.) 
Vrooman  and  Will:  Abolition  of  War,  Arena,  II,  1 18-144. 
Worcester:  Solemn  Review  of  the  Custom  of  War. 
Lacombe:  La  guerre  et  I'homme  (1903). 
Warner:  The  Ethics  of  Force  (1905). 
Chittenden:  War  or  Peace  (1911). 
Kellogg:  Beyond  War  (1912). 
Novicow:  La  possibilite  du  bonheur  (1904). 
Perris:  Short  History  of  War  and  Peace  (1911). 
(And  many  other  articles  in  periodicals,  books,  etc.) 

Philosophy  of  War  and  Peace. 

Richet :  La  guerre  et  la  paix  au  point  de  vue  philosophique,  Revue 
Philosophique,  66:  160-172. 

James :  The  Moral  Equivalent  of  War.    McClure's,  35 :  463-8. 
(Also  in  pamphlet  form.) 

Ruyssen :  La  philosophic  de  la  paix. 

Steinmetz :  Philosophic  des  Krieges. 

Nordau:  Philosophy  and  Morals  of  War.    North  American  Re- 
view, 169:  787. 

Fabris :  Psychology  of  War.    Chaut.  28 :  68. 

Fried:  Grundlagen  des  revolutionaren  Pacifismus. 


140  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


XXX.    THE  CASE  FOR  PEACE:  WAR  IN  HISTORY  AND 
LITERATURE. 

(Jordan) 

War  inextricably  woven  into  history  of  civilization. 
Records  of  the  past  concerned  chiefly 

With  elevation  and  abasement  of  kings. 
March  of  armies,  noise  of  battle. 
Literature  based  chiefly  on  war. 
Homer,  Virgil. 
Christian  epics. 

Song  of  Roland. 

Holy  Grail. 

Paradise  Lost. 

Andalusia. 
Ballads. 

Venice. 

Wars  of  the  Roses. 

Thirty  Years'  War. 

Gustavus  Adolphus. 

William  the  Silent. 
Lyrics  and  hymns. 

The  Two  Voices. 

The  Christian  Soldier. 
Painting,  Sculpture. 

"Through  the  whole  web  of  human  record  runs  the  bood-red 
thread  of  war." 
Great  literature  follows  great  war. 

"The  cave-dweller  who  sketched  with  a  flint  on  a  piece 
of  bone  in  such  a  masterly  manner,  that  hairy  arctic  elephant, 
did  it  when  safely  entrenched  in  his  cave  after  a  successful 
hunt,  in  a  leisure  moment,  and  on  a  full  stomach." 
Art  flourishes  in  peace  after  successful  war. 
Golden  age  of  Greek  art  after  Marathon. 
Salamis  and  Thermopylae. 
Augustan  age  after  Caesar's  campaigns. 
Elizabethan  age  after  dispersal  of  the  Invincible  Armada. 
Spanish  art  after  fall  of  Moor. 
Netherlands  after  rise  of  Dutch  Republic. 
German  art  and  science  after  Sedan. 

Does  idealism  rise  from  blood  of  war,  from  exaltation, 
confidence,  boastfulness  ? 


THE  CASE   FOR  PEACE  I4I 

Art,  the  translation  of  deep  experience  into  visible  terms.  Cologne 
and   Parthenon.     Abundant   life  makes   Tife  more   abun- 
dant. 
Uplift  follows  successful  war. 

What  of  defeat  ?    What  if  none  left  to  be  uplifted  ?    What 
of  loss  and  waste,  and  horror  and  sorrow  ? 
Civilization  a  march  of  victors,  but  none  victor  for  long. 
"No  victory  possible  save  as  resultant  of  totality  of  virtues ; 
no  defeat  for  which  some  vice  or  weakness  was  not 
responsible." 
Is  this  true? 
Are  men  weak,  flabby,  selfish,  engrossed  in  gain,  without 

war? 
Is  war  an  agency  set  on  foot  for  hope  of  gain? 
Do  those  fight  who  win  ?    Do  those  fight  who  plan  the  game  ? 
"Part  of  human  nature."     What  evil  is  not?     Struggles  of 
brains   and   science   against   struggles   of   sinew   and 
dynamite. 
Why  does  war  exist? 

1.  Selfishness:  coveting  of  others'  possessions. 

"Modern  peace  only  a  near  relation  of  war,  of  a  differ- 
ent sex,  but  of  the  same  blood." 
"So  love  as  if  you  were  one  day  to  hate." 

2.  Restlessness. 

The  military  vs.  the  social  whirl.  The  prize-fight  and 
the  thirst  for  thrills. 

Fondness  for  combat.  Combat  and  killing  not  neces- 
sarily the  same. 

3.  Poetry  of  war. 

Flags  and  bugles.    Red  coats  and  drums. 

The  Pipes  o'  Gordon's  Men. 

By  J.  Scott  Glasgow 

Home  comes  a  lad  with  the  bonnie  hair, 

And  the  kilted  plaid  that  the  hill-clans  wear; 

And  you  hear  the  Mother  say, 

"Whear  ha'  ye  bin,  my  laddie,  whear  ha'  ye  bin  th'  day?" 

"Oh !  I  ha'  bin  wi'  Gordon's  men ; 

Dinna  ye  hear  the  bag-pipes  play? 

And  I  followed  the  soldiers  across  the  green, 

And  doon  th'  road  ta  Aberdeen. 

And  when  I'm  a  man,  my  Mother, 

And  th'  grenadiers  parade, 
I'll  be  marchin'  there,  wi'  my  Father's  pipes. 

And  I'll  wear  th'  red  cockade." 


142  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Beneath  the  Soudan's  sky  ye  ken  the  smoke, 
As  the  clans  reply  when  the  tribesmen  spoke. 

Then  the  charge  roars  by! 
The  death-sweat  clings  to  the  kilted  form  that  the  stretcher  brings, 
And  the  iron-nerved  surgeons  say, 

"Whear  ha'  ye  bin,  my  Laddie,  whear  ha'  ye  bin  th'  day?" 
"Oh,  I  ha'  bin  wi'  Gordon's  men ; 
Dinna  ye  hear  th'  bag-pipes  play? 
And  I  piped  the  clans  from  the  river-barge 
Across  the  sands — and  through  the  charge. 
And  I — skirled  the — pibroch — keen — and  high, 
But  th'  pipes — bin  broke — and — my — lips — bin — dry." 

War 
By  Richard  Le  Gallienne 
War 
I  abhor! 

And  yet  how  sweet 
The  sound  along  the  marching  street 

Of  drum  and  fife,  and  I  forget 

Wet  eyes  of  widows,  and  forget 
Broken  old  mothers,  and  the  whole 
Dark  butchering  without  a  soul. 

Without  a  soul — save  this  bright  drink 

Of  heady  music,  sweet  as  hell ; 
And  even  my  peace-abiding  feet 
Go  marching  with  the  marching  feet. 
For  yonder,  yonder  goes  the  fife, 
And  what  care  I  for  human  life! 
The  tears  fill  my  astonished  eyes. 

And  my  full  heart  is  like  to  break, 
And  yet  'tis  all  embannered  lies, 

A  dream  those  little  drummers  make. 

Oh,  it  is  wickedness  to  clothe 

Yon  hideous,  grinning  thing  that  stalks 

Hidden  in  music,  like  a  queen 
That  in  a  garden  of  glory  walks, 

Till  good  men  love  the  things  they  loathe; 

Art,  thou  hast  many  infamies. 

But  not  an  infamy  like  this. 

Oh,  snap  the  fife,  and  still  the  drum, 

And  show  the  monster  as  she  is! 

"The  flower  of  life  is  red." 

"Human  kind  without  emotionality,  coursing  red  blood,  and 
without  the  out-reaching  of  personality  was  inconceivable." 


THE  CASE  FOR   PEACE  1 43 

The  universe  begotten  of  clashing  atoms ;  race  against  'race ; 
species  against  species ;  individual  against  individual. 

But  all  this  not  the  war  of  the  militarist,  wholesale  killing, 
not  individual  struggle.  "Unreasoning  anger"  set  in  operation 
by  unbridled  greed.  There  are  struggles,  natural  and  desirable. 
The  wholesale  murder  of  strangers  not  of  these. 

Civilization  makes  friends  of  strangers,  removes  barriers  of 
age,  race,  nation,  even  of  species. 

To  pour  out  blood  and  money  at  dictate  of  quarreling 
individuals  and  cliques,  who  struggle  only  through  the  lives  of 
those  they  destroy. 

War  has  no  sacredness,  no  more  than  a  prize-fight.  Those 
who  die  for  their  country's  sins  have  wasted  life  as  much  as 
those  who  die  from  a  defective  bridge. 

Civilization  and  commerce,  science,  invention  and  religion 
extend  the  borders  of  the  in-group  until  they  shall  include  the 
earth. 

There  will  always  be  place  for  struggle.  Competition  and  co- 
operation, egoism  and  altruism  go  hand  in  hand,  and  both  are 
ineradicable  and  eternal,  so  long  as  life  endures. 

But  there  is  room  for  eternal  struggle,  though  not  a  drop 
of  blood  be  shed  wantonly. 


144  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


XXXI.     "THE  GREAT  ILLUSION." 

[This  lecture  is  a  presentation  of  the  argument  of  Norman 
Angell's  (Ralph  Lane)  book  "The  Great  Illusion."  The  following 
synopsis  is  taken  from  the  Third  Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition 
of  the  work,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  1911.] 


What  are  the  real  motives  prompting  international  rivalry 
in  armaments,  particularly  Anglo-German  rivalry?  Each  nation 
pleads  that  its  armaments  are  purely  for  defence,  but  such  plea 
necessarily  implies  that  other  nations  have  some  interest  in  attack. 
What  is  this  interest  or  supposed  interest? 

The  supposed  interest  has  its  origin  in  the  universally  ac- 
cepted theory  that  military  and  political  power  give  a  nation 
commercial  and  social  advantages,  that  the  wealth  and  prosperity 
of  the  defenceless  nation  are  at  the  mercy  of  stronger  nations, 
who  may  be  tempted  by  such  defencelessness  to  commit  aggres- 
sion, so  that  each  nation  is  compelled  to  protect  itself  against  the 
possible  cupidity  of  neighbours. 

The  author  boldly  challenges  this  universal  theory,  and 
declares  it  to  be  based  upon  a  pure  optical  illusion.  He  sets  out 
to  prove  that  military  and  political  power  give  a  nation  no  com- 
mercial advantage;  that  it  is  an  economic  impossibility  for  one 
nation  to  seize  or  destroy  the  wealth  of  another,  or  for  one 
nation  to  enrich  itself  by  subjecting  another. 

He  establishes  this  apparent  paradox  by  showing  that 
wealth  in  the  economically  civilized  world  is  founded  upon  credit 
and  commercial  contract.  If  these  are  tampered  with  in  an 
attempt  at  confiscation  by  a  conqueror,  the  credit-dependent  wealth 
not  only  vanishes,  thus  giving  the  conqueror  nothing  for  his 
conquest,  but  in  its  collapse  involves  the  conqueror;  so  that  if 
conquest  is  not  to  injure  the  conqueror,  he  must  scrupulously 
respect  the  enemy's  property,  in  which  case  conquest  becomes 
economically  futile. 

Thus  it  comes  that  the  credit  of  the  small  and  virtually 
unprotected  States  stands  higher  than  that  of  the  Great  Powers  of 
Europe,  Belgian  three  per  cents  standing  at  96  and  German  at 
82;  Norwegian  three  and  a  half  per  cents  at  102;  and  Russian 
three  and  a  half  per  cents  at  81. 

For  allied  reasons  the  idea  that  addition  of  territory  adds 
to  a  nation's  wealth  is  an  optical  illusion  of  like  nature,  since  the 
wealth  of  conquered  territory  remains  in  the  hands  of  the  popula- 
tion of  such  territory. 


THE  GREAT  ILLUSION  145 

For  a  modern  nation  to  add  to  its  territory  no  more  adds  to 
the  wealth  of  the  people  of  such  nation  than  it  would  add  to  the 
wealth  of  Londoners  if  the  City  of  London  were  to  annex  the 
county  of  Hertford.  It  is  a  change  of  administration  which  may 
be  good  or  bad ;  but  as  tribute  has  become  under  modern  economic 
conditions  impossible  (which  means  that  taxes  collected  from  a 
given  territory  must  directly  or  indirectly  be  spent  on  that  terri- 
tory), the  fiscal  situation  of  the  people  concerned  is  unchanged 
by  conquest. 

When  Germany  annexed  Alsace,  no  individual  German 
secured  a  single  mark's  worth  of  Alsatian  property  as  the  spoils 
of  war. 

The  author  also  shows  that  international  finance  has  become 
so  independent  and  so  interwoven  with  trade  and  industry  that  the 
intangibility  of  an  enemy's  property  extends  to  his  trade.  _  It 
results  that  political  and  military  power  can  in  reality  do  nothing 
for  trade,  since  the  individual  merchants  and  manufacturers  of 
small  nations  exercising  no  such  power  compete  successfully  with 
those  of  the  great.  Swiss  and  Belgian  merchants  are  driving 
English  from  the  Canadian  markets;  Norway  has,  relatively  to 
population,  a  much  greater  mercantile  marine  than  Great  Britain. 

The  author  urges  that  these  little-recognized  facts,  mainly 
the  outcome  of  purely  modern  conditions  ( rapidity  of  communica- 
tion creating  a  greater  complication  and  delicacy  of  the  credit 
system),  have  rendered  the  problems  of  modern  international 
politics  profoundly  and  essentially  different  from  the  ancient ;  yet 
our  ideas  are  still  dominated  by  the  principles  and  axioms  and 
phraseology  of  the  old. 

In  the  second  part — "The  Human  Nature  of  the  Case" — the 
author  asks,  What  is  the  basis,  the  scientific  justification  of  the 
plea  that  man's  natural  pugnacity  will  indefinitely  stand  in  the 
way  of  international  agreement?  It  is  based  on  the  alleged  un- 
changeability  of  human  nature,  on  the  plea  that  the  warlike 
nations  inherit  the  earth  that  warlike  qualities  alone  can  give  the 
virile  energy  necessary  for  nations  to  win  in  the  struggle  for  life. 

The  author  shows  that  human  nature  is  not  unchanging; 
that  the  warlike  nations  do  not  inherit  the  earth ;  that  warfare 
does  not  make  for  the  survival  of  the  fittest  or  virile ;  that  the 
struggle  between  nations  is  no  part  of  the  evolutionary  law  of 
man's  advance,  and  that  that  idea  resides  on  a  profound  mis- 
reading of  the  biological  law  that  physical  force  is  a  constantly 
diminishing  factor  in  human  affairs,  and  that  this  diminution 
carries  with  it  profound  psychological  modifications ;  that  society 
is  classifying  itself  by  interests  rather  than  by  State  divisions ; 
that  the  modern  State  is  losing  its  homogeneity;  and  that  all 
these  multiple  factors  are  making  rapidly  for  the  disappearance 


146  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

of  State  rivalries.  He  shows  how  these  tendencies,  Hke  the 
economic  facts  dealt  with  in  the  first  part,  are  very  largely  of 
recent  growth,  and  may  be  utilised  for  the  solution  of  the  arma- 
ment difficulty,  not  by  inviting  the  invader,  through  defenceless- 
ness  to  come  in,  but  by  showing  the  invader  that  he  has  no 
interest  in  going;  in  other  words,  by  so  modifying  current  ideas 
on  statecraft  that  aggression  will  be  deprived  of  its  main  motive, 
and  the  risk  of  war  and  necessity  for  armament  by  that  much 
lessened. 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION  I47 


XXXII.    THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  TRANSPORTATION 
AND  COMMUNICATION. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Travel  and  communication  in  former  times. 

1.  Commerce  limited.     Each  region  practically  an  economic 

unit,  largely  independent  of  all  others. 

2.  Knowledge  not  general,  but  circumscribed  and  concerned 

chiefly  with  local  interests. 

B.  Improvement  in  transportation  and  communication. 

1.  Transportation  is  now  about  eight  or  ten  times  as  rapid 

as  it  was  formerly.  Places  are,  therefore,  only  about 
one-tenth  as  remote  from  each  other  as  they  were,  i.e., 
the  earth  is  only  one-tenth  as  large  as  it  was  to  the 
traveler. 

2.  Communication,  which  was  formerly  no  more  rapid  than 

travel,  is  now  practically  instantaneous.  Through  the 
development  of  news  services,  newspapers,  and  mail 
service  knowledge  of  all  parts  of  the  world  has  become 
general. 

C.  Result:  Internationalism. 

1.  World  unity  in  business,  commerce,  finance,  capital  and 

labor. 

2.  World  life  and  thought.    Good  ideas,  no  matter  where  they 

originate,  quickly  become  world  ideas. 

References 

Sundbarg:  Aperqus.  .  .  .     Tables  270-286. 

Huber:  Entwickelung  des  modernen  Verkehrs  (1893). 

Gotz :  Verkehrswege  in  Dienste  des  Welthandels. 

Album  de  Statistique  Graphique  (1908)   Plate  28. 

Dodge :  Great  Captain  Series.    Appendices. 

Journal  de  la  Societe  de  Statistique  de  Paris,  1909,  14-20. 

Mummenhoff:  Der  Nachrichtendienst  zwischen  Deutschland  und 

Italien  in  16  Jahrhundert. 
Voyages   au   Temps    jadis    en    France,    Angleterre,    Allemagne, 

Suisse,    Italie,    et    Sicilie     (1888).       (Hopkins    Railway 

Library.) 
Wolff :  Transportation. 
V.  d.  Borght:  Das  Verkehrswesen  (1894). 
Andree:  Der  Weltverkehr  und  seine  Mittel   (1875). 
Jusserand:  English  Wayfaring  Life  (8  ed.  1891). 


148  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Cheyney:   European  Background  to  American  History   (1904), 

22-78. 
Beazley:  The  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography  (1897-1906). 
Hartmann :  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Posten. 
Heyd:  Geschichte  des  Levanthandels  im  Mittelalter   (1879). 
Bates:  Touring  in  1600  (1911). 

Statistics  Upon  the  Increase  of  Communication 

Telegraph. 

Statistical  Abst.  of  U.  S.  1910,  p.  257  (1866-1910). 

Sundbarg,  1908,  p.  384-5  (1891-1906). 

Chicago  Daily  News  Al.,  191 1,  p.  59  (1850-1905,  by  decades). 

Commercial   Year  Book,    1900,  p.   505    (1867-99,  by  5  yr. 
periods). 

Ency.  Britannica,  (11  ed.)  p.  527  (i 870-1907). 

Statistical  Abst.  of  Gt.  Britain,  1908,  p.  306  (for  all  Europe). 
Cables. 

Chicago  Daily  News  Al,  191 1,  p.  59  (1850-1905,  by  decades). 

World  Almanac,  191 1,  p.  299  (for  whole  world). 

Commercial  Year  Book,  1900,  p.  147-8. 

American  Year  Book,  1910,  p.  260. 
Railroads. 

Sundbarg:    Apergus,    1908,    pp.    368-9    (1825-1910,    whole 
world). 

Statist.  Abst.  of  U.  S.,  1910,  pp.  734-8  (all  countries). 
Postal  Statistics. 

Sundbarg,  1908,  pp.  380-2. 

Statist.  Abst.  of  U.  S.  1910,  p.  255  (1879-date). 

Ency.  Britannica  (11  ed.)  vol.  22,  p.  179  (1839-1870,  Gt.  Br.) 

American  Almanac  and  Year  Book,  1904,  p.  522  (1790-1904, 
U.  S.). 

Statistics  Upon  the  Increase  of  Travel. 

Sundbarg:  Apergus  .  .  .  1908,  p.  379. 

Poore:  Railroad  Manual,  1910,  Introd.  cvii;  1899,  ix. 

Statistisches    Jahrbuch    d.    deutschen    Reiches,    1901,    46; 

1909,  115. 
General  Railway  Reports,  Great  Britain,  1 871 -1882,  pp.  12, 

14;  15;  17-19;  43. 
Mulhall:  Statistics  (1903),  573  (Sea  travel). 
Statistical  Abstract  (Great  Britain),  1901,  205. 
Album  de  Statistique  Graphique  (1906). 


m 


INTERNATIONALISM 


149 


XXXIII.    INTERNATIONALISM. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Private  International  activities. 

I.  Of  individuals  or  national  organizations. 

Travel,  study  (Rhodes  scholars;  exchange  professors). 
Interchange    of    visits    by    legislators,    mayors,    prime 

ministers,  rulers,  commercial  bodies,  etc. 
Buying  and  selling  in    the  world  market. 
Investment  in  foreign  bonds  or  enterprises.     Interna- 
tional credit. 
British  Capital  invested  abroad. 
(Economist,  Feb.  20,  1909. — Webb,  Diet,  of  Statis- 
tics, 81.) 

British  Capital  Invested  in  Colonies  and  Dependen- 


cies. 


India £470,000,000 

Australasia  ....   321,000,000 

Canada 305,000,000 

Transvaal 220,000,000 


Cape  Colony  .  .  98,000,000 

Rhodesia,  E.  Af.  59,000,000 

Natal    30,000,000 

Others    63,000,000 


Total   £1,566,000,000 


British  Capital  Invested  in  Foreign  Countries. 


United  States  . 

Japan    

Argentine  .... 

Brazil   

Egypt 

Mexico 

Ger'y,  France, 
Sweden,  Nor- 
way,Belgium, 
Denmark  . . . 

China    


£485,000,000 

115,000,000 

254,000,000 

101,000,000 

97,000,000 

51,000,000 


48,000,000 
47,000,000 


Russia    45,000,000 

Balkan     States 
incl.    Turkey 

and   Greece .  39,000,000 
Italy,   Switzer- 
land and  Aus- 
tria    26,000,000 

Spain    25,000,000 

Uruguay    ....  25,000,000 

Cuba 21,000,000 

Chile 42,000,000 

Others    63,000,000 


Total  foreign  investment £1,484,000,000 

Grand  total,  £3,050,000,000 
This  is  about  one-fifth  of  the  total  capital  of  the  United  Kingdom. 


150  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

2.  Organized  international  activity.   (La  Vie  Internationale, 
1908-9,  537-1282.) 
A  great  many  interests  have  international  organizations, 
meetings,  and  publications.    To  illustrate  this  the 
following  are  selected.     (The  names  of  the  asso- 
ciations are  here  given  in  a  convenient  form.) 
Foundation  for  the  Promotion  of  Internationalism. 
Libraries. 

International  Institute  of  Bibliography. 
International  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature. 
International  Congress  of  Librarians. 
Press. 

Renter's  News  Service. 
International  Press  Association. 
Legislature. 

Interparliamentary  Union   (1889).     One  fifth 
of  the  members  of  national  legislatures  are 
members  of  it. 
Peace. 

International  Peace  Congresses  (i843f). 
International  Friendship  Societies. 
Ethical  and  Philanthropic. 

International  Union  of  Ethical  Societies. 
International   Congress   against   Immoral   Lit- 
erature. 
International  Congress  against  Intemperance. 
International  Congress  of  Protectors  of  Ani- 
mals. 
International  Union  against  Vivisection. 
International  Congress  against  Duelling. 
Red  Cross  Society. 
Friends  of  Young  Women. 
Religion. 

World's  Parliament  of  Religions. 

Eucharistic  Congresses. 

Salvation   Army. 

Young    Men's    Christian^  Association.     Over 

800,000  members. 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association. 
Sociology. 

International  Institute  of  Sociology. 
International  Institute  of  Statistics. 
International  Colonial  Institute. 
British  and  Foreign  Anti-Slavery  Society. 
International  Penitentiary  Commission. 


INTERNATIONALISM  I5I 

Labor. 

International  Socialist  Bureau. 
International  Federation  for  Sunday  Observ- 
ance. 
International   Association  for  the  Legal   Pro- 
tection of  Laborers. 
International  Co-operation.  (See  its  Year  Book, 
1910.) 
Law  and  Government. 

International  Law  Association. 
International  Alliance  for  Woman  Suffrage. 
International  Association  of  Lawyers. 
Insurance. 

International  Congress  of  Actuaries. 
Education. 

Universal  Federation  of  Christian  Students. 
Cosmopolitan     Club,     affiliated     with     Corda 
Fratres,  1911. 
(Various  Congresses  have  been  held.) 
Commerce  and  Transportation. 

International  Railway  Association. 
International  Marine  Association. 
Philology. 

(International    Languages:   Volapiik,    Langue 
Bleue,  Esperanto,  Ido.) 
Sciences ;  pure  and  applied. 

(Many  of  them  have  international  organiza- 
tions.) 
International  Medical  Association  against  War. 
Geography. 

International  Congress  of  Geography. 
International  Geodesy.     (Is  preparing  a  world 

map.) 
International  Polar  Commission. 
Fine  Arts. 

International  Institute  of  Public  Art. 
Sports. 

Olympic  Games. 

International  Aeronautical  Federation. 
B.  Public  International  Activities. 
I.  Administrative. 

Universal    Postal    Union    (1878).      (Bridgman:    First 
Book  of  World  Law,  20-71.) 
Practically  all  countries  are  members.    Headquarters 
Berne. 


152  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Universal  Telegraph  Union  (1875). 

About  30  members. 
Convention  Concerning  the  Metric  System  (1875). 

About  23  states  have  accepted  it. 
Union  for  the  Protection  of  Industrial  Property  (1883). 

About  19  members.     Headquarters  Berne. 
Union  for  the  Protection  of  Works  of  Literature  and 
Art  (1886). 
About  15  states  are  members.  Headquarters  Berne. 
Union   Concerning  Railway   Transports   and   Freights 
(1890). 
9  states  are  members.    Headquarters  Berne. 
Union  for  the  Publication  of  Customs  Tariffs  (1890). 

About  30  members.    Headquarters  Brussels. 
Phylloxera  Conventions   (1878,  1881). 

12  members. 
Convention     Concerning     Private     International     Law 
(1893,  1896,  1900). 
About  15  members.  (Library  contains  documents  of 
first  and  third  meetings.     See  References.) 
Sanitary  Conventions. 

Cholera  (1893,  1894,  1899). 
Plague  (1897,  1900). 
Monetary  Unions. 

Latin  Monetary  Union  (1865).    5  members. 
Scandinavian  Monetary  Union  (1873).  3  members. 
Universal  Monetary  Conference  (1892). 

17  states  represented:  no  practical  result. 
Convention    for    the    Suppression    of    the    Slave-trade 

(1892). 
Convention   for  the  Preservation  of  Wild  Animals  in 
Africa  (1900). 
7  signatories. 
Convention  Concerning  Bounties  on  Sugar  (1902). 

About  12  members.  Headquarters  Brussels. 
Others  of  the  same  kind  relating  to  trade  in  arms,  spirit- 
uous liquors  ( 1899,  1906),  the  use  of  international 
rivers,  canals  and  waterways  generally,  protec- 
tion of  ocean  cables,  radiotelegraphy,  rules  of 
traffic  at  sea,  international  signal  code,  fishing  on 
the  high  seas,  protection  of  travelers,  exchange, 
exchange  of  documents,  agriculture  (1905), 
scientific  expeditions.  World's  prime  meridian 
(1884),  "white  slavery"   (1904),  etc. 


INTERNATIONALISM  1 53 

2.  Political  (at  least  in  some  measure). 

a.  Inter-governmental  conferences,  congresses,  treaties, 

etc. 

Final  Act  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815). 
"Concert." 

The  Holy  Alliance  (1815). 

Protocol  of  the  Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1818). 

Treaty  of  London  (1831).  Neutralization  of  Bel- 
gium. 

Declaration  of  Paris  (1856). 

Geneva  Convention  (1864).  Treatment  of  wounded 
in  war. 

Treaty  of  London  (1867).  Neutralization  of  Lux- 
emburg. 

Declaration  of  St.  Petersburg  (1868).  Projectiles 
in  war. 

Congress  of  Berlin  (1878).  Near  Eastern  Ques- 
tion. 

General  Act  of  the  Congo  Conference  (1885). 

Treaty  of  Constantinople  (1888).  Suez  Canal  neu- 
tral. 

Pan-American  Conferences  (1889-90;  1901,  1906, 
1910). 

Final  Act  of  The  Hague  Peace  Conference  (1899). 

Treaty  of  Washington  (1901).  Neutralizes  Pana- 
ma Canal. 

Algeciras  Conference  (1906). 

Central  American  Conferences  (1906,  1907). 

Final  Act  of  the  Second  Hague  Conference  (1907). 

The  Declaration  of  London  (1909).  Private  prop- 
erty at  sea,  etc.    Not  generally  ratified  as  yet. 

(  And  many  others ) . 

b.  Intergovernmental  Administration. 

Intervention.  International  law  of  the  present  pre- 
sumes the  equality  of  full-sovereign  states. 
Nevertheless  certain  states  or  groups  of 
states  have  imposed  their  wills  on  weaker 
states. 
Intervention  in  Naples  (1821)  and  Spain 
(1823),  by  Austria  and  France  respectively 
to  overthrow  anti-monarchical  governments, 
though  it  was  done  with  a  semblance  of  en- 
forcing treaties. 
Intervention  of  the  United  States  in  Cuba 
(1898),  on  the  plea  of  humanitarianism. 


154  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

The  consequence  of  this  procedure  is  the  de- 
velopment in  treatises  on  international  law  of 
a  theory  of  intervention  by  right.  It  is 
significant  to  note  that  if  there  is  such  a  thing 
as  intervention  by  right,  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  the  absolute  sovereignty  of  nations. 
Intervention  in  the  affairs  of  another  nation 
on  the  ground  of  humanity  is  an  admission 
that  humanity  takes  precedence  over  national 
sovereignty. 
Bureau  of  American  Republics. 
Central  American  Bureau. 

Central  American  Court  of  Justice  (All  differ- 
ences of  any  nature  whatsoever  are  to 
be  arbitrated  by  this  court). 
Permanent  International  Bureau  at  The  Hague. 
The  Hague  Tribunal  (iSqq). 
The  International  Prize  Court  (1907). 
International  loans.    Loans  of  a  state  or  a  group 
of   states   to   another   power,   in   which   the 
lending  state  is  officially  concerned.    Chinese 
loans. 
C.  International  Conferences  etc.,  summarized. 

1.  Number  between   1843  and  1910:  1977-}-. 

Within    that   time   their   number   has    steadily   in- 
creased. 

1 840- 1 860 28  international  congresses 

1861-1870 69 

1871-1880 150 

1881-1890 295 

1891-1900 645 

1901-1910 790 

1840-1910 1977  international  congresses 

(La  Vie  Internationale,  1908-9,  i.  175.) 

2.  Three  stages  in  their  history.     (La  Vie  Intern.  1908,  i, 

46-7.) 

a.  Formation  of  a  scientific  organization  and  the  invita- 
tion of  foreigners  to  join  it.  Originated  in  Ger- 
many, about  1823. 

h.  Creation  of  large  official  organizations.  Begun  about 
i860. 

c.  Formation  of  independent  associations  with  or  with- 
out state  aid.     Since  1895. 

3.  Headquarters. 

a.  Some  have  none. 

h.  Fixed :  Berne,  Brussels,  and  lately  The  Hague,  favor- 
ites. 
c.  Itinerant. 


INTERNATIONALISM  155 

D.  Results  of  internationalism. 

1.  Interest  (financial  as  well  as  academic)  in  other  peoples. 

2.  Reduction  of  national  prejudices. 

This  is  stimulated  by  the  spread  of  the  belief  in  the 
equality  of  man  (democracy),  which  is  manifest- 
ing itself  in  the  world-wide  acceptance  of  popular 
sovereignty.  It  is  a  movement  in  the  direction  of 
international  democracy. 

3.  Cosmopolitanism.     World  citizenship.     "Brotherhood  of 

Man." 

4.  Change  in  the  conception  of  patriotism.     "New  patriot- 

ism."   "Above  the  Nations  is  Humanity." — (Goldwin 
Smith  bench  at  Cornell.) 

5.  Schemes  of  world  federation  (See  Lecture  XXXIV.) 


156  lectures  on  international  conciliation 

References 

Oppenheim:  International  Law  (1905-6). 

Brid^man:  World  Org-anization  (1905). 

Bridgman :  The  First  Book  of  World  Law  (1911). 

Trueblood:  Federation  of  the  World  (i8oq), 

Farrer:    The  New  Leviathan. 

Crafts:  A  Primer  of  the  Science  of  Internationalism  (1908). 

Crosby :  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  the  World. 

Eykman :  Internationalism  and  the  World's  Capital.    Ind.,  61 :  200. 

Imperialism,  Nationalism,  and  Internationalism.  Westm.,  165  :  240. 

Crawford:  United  States  of  Europe.     Fortnightly,  80:  992. 

Reinsch :  International  Government. 

Reinsch:  World  Politics   (1900). 

Reinsch:  Public  International  Unions  (1911). 

Holt:  Dawn  of  the  World's  Peace,  World's  Work,  21 :  I4i28f. 

La  Fontaine:  Existing  Elements  of  a  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  of  the  World.     (Pamphlet.) 

Spiller:  Inter-Racial  Problems  (1911),  57;  233-260.  (Biblio- 
graphy.) 

Fried :  Pan-Amerika. 

Bulletin  of  the  International  Bureau  of  American  Republics. 

Internoscia:  New  Code  of  International  Law. 

Bourgeois,  L:  Pour  la  societe  de  nations  {Le  Figaro,  20,  XI). 

Bolce:  New  Internationalism. 

Year  Book  of  International  Co-operation,  First  Year,  1910. 

Finance  and  Commerce.  Their  Relation  to  International  Good 
Will.     (Am.  Assoc,  for  Int.  Cone.  No.  50.) 

Hammond:  The  Business  Man's  Interest  in  Peace — Why  Not 
Neutralize  China?     (Maryland  Peace  Society,  No.  8.) 

Osborne :  Influence  of  Commerce  in  the  Promotion  of  Interna- 
tional Peace.    Government  Printing  Office,  Dept.  of  State. 

Bridgman:  The  Passing  of  the  Tariff  (1909). 

Pepper:  Conciliation  through  Commerce  and  Industry  in  South 
America. 

Mahan :  The  Interest  of  America  in  International  Conditions 
(1910). 

International  Who's  Who,  1912. 

Fourth  International  Conference  of  American  States,  Buenos 
Ayres,  1910-1911.  Government  Printing  Office,  State 
Dept.,  Senate  Doc.  744. 

Rothlisberger :  Die  Internationale  Aemter  in  Berne  (1911). 

Le  probleme  de  la  langue  Internationale   (Paris,   1911). 

Lubin:  International  Institute  of  Agriculture  and  its  Bearing  on 
Labor.    Government  Printing  Office. 

Whitaker's  Almanack,  1910,  690-91 ;  1912,  759.  (Foreign  invest- 
ments of  Englishmen.) 

Eijkman:  L'internationalisme  scientifique  (1911). 


WORLD    FEDERATION  1 57 


XXXIV.    WORLD  FEDERATION. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Federations  have  been  successful  on  the  whole. 

1.  The  Achaian  League,  B.  C.  281-146. 

2.  The  Swiss  Confederation,  A.  D.  1291-date. 

3.  The  United  Provinces,  A.  D.  1579-1795. 

4.  United  States,  1789-date. 

5.  German  Empire,   (1866)   1871-date.     (Confederation.) 

B.  The   steady   improvement   of   means    of   transportation    and 

communication  has  produced  a  tendency  in  modern  history 
for  nations  to  draw  together,  and  for  human  interests  in 
all  countries  to  become  alike. 
Certain  acts  of  states  point  in  the  direction  of  federation. 

Hague  Conferences  (the  beginning  of  a  world  legisla- 
ture). 
The  Hague  Court  (the  beginning  of  a  world  judiciary). 
Central  American  Union. 
Pan-American  Union. 

Similar  propositions   for   other   countries   are   not   un- 
common. 

C.  Schemes  proposed  to   compel  bellicose  nations  to  keep  the 

peace. 

1.  Leagues  of  neutrals,  or  peace  syndicates.     (Molinari  258, 

287.) 

2.  International  protests  against  war. 

3.  Boycott  of  nations  which  make  war.    Refusing  to  recog- 

nize its  officials,  its  acts,  papers,  stamps,  citizens,  ships, 
goods,  declining  to  trade  with  it,  refusing  loans,  can- 
celling bonds  and  stocks  listed  at  boards  of  trade,  put- 
ting high  customs  duties  on  its  goods,  etc. 

4.  General  strike. 

5.  Pacific  blockade. 

6.  International  police. 

(The  last  two  suggestions  imply  an  international  exe- 
cutive.) 

D.  The  world  executive. 

1.  Character  of  the  executive:  no  different  from  executive 

arrangements  known  today. 
a.  An  individual. 
h.  A  commission. 

2.  Source  of  authority  of  the  executive. 

a.  From  the   several   states   acting  jointly;   giving  the 

executive  the  powers  of  ambassadors    (interna- 
tional government). 

b.  From  the  people  of  the  several  states ;  a  true  federa- 

tion,  making  the   several   states   subject  to   the 
world  executive  (cosmopolitan  government). 


158  lectures  on  international  conciliation 

References 

Freeman :  History  of  Federal  Government  in  Greece  and  Italy 

(1893)- 
Spiller:  Inter-Racial  Problems   (1911),  383f. 
VII   International  Congress   of  Universal   Peace:   International 

Code. 
Mason:  Constitution  for  World-wide  Federation. 
Molinari:  Grandeur  et  decadence  de  la  guerre  (1898). 
Novicow :  La  federation  de  L'Europe. 
Novicow :    Die    Gerechtigkeit   und   die   Entfaltung   des   Lebens, 

367-96. 
Hill,  D.  J. :  World  Organization  as  Affected  by  the  Nature  of  the 

Modern  State  (1911). 
Schiicking:  Die  Organization  der  Welt. 
Nangest:   La  paix  universelle  et  le   disarmament  militaire  par 

I'organization  de  la  volonte  des  nations  (1909). 
Hugo-Duras :  La  paix  par  I'organization  internationale. 
Kamarowsky:  Tribunal  international   (French  transl.  by  West- 
man,  Paris,  1887),  233-263. 
La  Fontaine:  Existing  Elements  of  a  Constitution  of  the  United 

States  of  the  World  (Pamphlet). 
Reinsch:  International  Government. 
Bridgman:  The  First  Book  of  World-Law  (1911). 


MEANS  OF   PROMOTING  PEACE  iSq 


XXXV.    MEANS  AND  METHODS  OF  PROMOTING 

PEACE. 

(Jordan) 

A.  Forces  working  for  peace. 

1.  Cosmopolitanism. 

International  activities  such  as  travel,  foreign  trade  and 
investments,  world  congresses,  international 
friendship  societies,  etc' 

2.  Peace  advocates  and  organizations. 

Peace  societies. 
Peace  endowments. 

World  Peace  Foundation:  Edwin  Ginn,  $1,000,000. 

Carnegie    Peace    Endowment:    Andrew    Carnegie, 
$10,000,000. 

3.  Woman. 

a.  Sees  and  concerns  herself  more  about  social  and  econ- 

omic evils ;  and  will  want  to  have  these  removed 
in  place  of  indulging  in  war. 

b.  Is  less  combative  by  nature  than  man ;  is  opposed  to 

violence. 

c.  Is  less  destructive  and  wasteful  than  man. 

d.  Often  experiences  the  losses  and  consequences  of  war 

more  keenly  than  man. 

e.  Her  finer  nature  revolts  at  brutality  and  vulgarity 

everywhere,  and  therefore  in  the  army  and  in 

barracks. 
/.  Suffrage  gives  her  the  power  to  express  her  opinion 

effectively. 
Voting  without  bearing  arms. 
g.  Woman  does  not  lack  courage;  instead  she  has  her 

peculiar  kind  of  courage  which  very  few  men  can 

equal,  namely,  sacrificial  courage. 
h.  International  marriages. 

4.  Socialism  is  opposed  to  militarism,  especially  in  Europe. 

B.  Methods.     Peace  advocates  have  suggested  various  ways  of 

promoting  peace,  and  work  along  the  line  which  best  suits 
their  bent. 

1.  Investigation  of  the  results  of  war. 

2.  Impartial  and  thorough  investigation  of  the  facts  of  an 

international  difference  .&^/or^,  instead  of  after,  the 
war. 

3.  Publicity  of  all  the  facts  in  dispute.    Combatting  the  dis- 

semination of  fictitious  news. 


l60  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

• 

4.  Free  trade,  as  a  means  of  reducing  international  rivalries. 

5.  Adopting  an  international  language. 

6.  Establishing  an  international  coinage. 

7.  Peaceable  readjustment  of  boundaries  to  remove  present 

disputes. 

8.  Neutralization  of  countries  or  boundaries. 

9.  Making  private  property  immune  in  maritime  as  well  as  in 

land  warfare. 

10.  Opposing  the  extension  of  compulsory  service. 

11.  Placing  a  limitation  upon  armaments. 

An  agreement  (the  only  one  of  its  kind)  between  Ar- 
gentine and  Chile^  of  May  28,  1902,  provides  for 
a  limitation  of  armaments.  (See  Appendix  D 
for  the  text  of  the  treaty.)  The  Christ  of  the 
Andes  was  erected  in  connection  with  the  cere- 
monies celebrating  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty. 

12.  Total  disarmament. 

13.  Improving  law. 

Preparing  a  code  of  international  law.  The  American 
Society  of  International  Law  is  working  toward 
this  end. 

Providing  for  periodical  meetings  of  the  Hague  Confer- 
ence. 

Increasing  the  authority  of  the  Hague  Conferences,  in 
the  direction  of  making  it  more  truly  a  world 
legislature. 

14.  Improving  the  system  of  arbitration. 

Increasing  the  scope  of  arbitration.    Unlimited  treaties. 
Providing  for  judicial  settlement  of  differences. 

(American  Society  for  the  Judicial  Settlement  of 
International  Disputes,  Baltimore.) 
General  treaty  of  arbitration  to  be  signed  by  all  powers. 
Inserting  a  clause  in  the  constitution  of  countries  bind- 
ing them  by  their  fundamental  law  to  resort  to 
arbitration. 
This  has  been  done  by  Brazil  (constitution  of  1891, 
article  34)    and  Venezuela   (constitution  of 
1904,  article  120).    See  Appendix  G  for  the 
texts. 
Making  arbitration   compulsory  in  the  ti"ue  sense,   by 
giving   some   sanction   to   the   mandates    of   the 
world  court,  such  as  the  right  to  summon  dispu- 
tants, or  enjoin  them,  etc.    This  is  equivalent  to 
establishing   a   world   executive.      (See   Lecture 
XXXIV.) 

15.  Giving  prizes  for  service  to  the  cause  of  peace  (Nobel). 


MEANS   OF   PROMOTING  PEACE  l6l 

i6.  Circulating  petitions  and  protests,  and  securing  the  back- 
ing   of    popular    opinion    for    the    cause    of    peace 
(Eckstein). 
17.  Educating  the  people  through — 

Books,  journals,  circulars,  lectures,  etc. 
Pictures,     photographs,     cartoons,     paintings     (Wirtz, 
Verestchagin).      Review   of   Reviezvs,   29:    545- 
50.     Outlook,  70:  270-6. 
Museums.    Lucerne  Peace  Museum,  founded  by  Bloch. 
Exhibits  at  expositions. 
Drama.     (Zangwill:  The  War-God.) 
Exchanges  of  professors  and  students. 
The  schools  (See  lecture  XXXVI). 

References 

D'Estournelles  de  Constant:  Limitation  of  Naval  and  Military 

Expenditure  (Pamphlet  pubHshed  by  the  Interparliament- 
ary Union,  1912). 
Frost :  Safeguards  for  Peace :  A  scheme  of  state  insurance  against 

war   (1905). 
Courtney  of  Penwith :  Peace  by  Justice. 
Richard:  Constitutional  Safeguards  against  War,  Outlook,  84: 

29-32. 
Brewer :  Enforcement  of  Arbitral  Awards,  in  Mohonk  Addresses 

*  (Hale)  104-115. 
Stein :  An  International  Police  to  Guarantee  the  World's  Peace. 
Dumas:  Les  sanctions  de  I'arbitrage  international  (1905). 
Dumas:    De    la    responsibilite    du    pouvoir    executif    consideret 

comme   Tune   des   sanctions   de   I'arbitrage   international. 

(Pamphlet.) 
Rashdau:    Der    Friedensgedanke    und    die    Neutralisierung   der 

europaischen  Grenzen.     Deutsche  R.     (Dec.  1910.) 
Neuwirth:  Weltcongress  und  Weltarmee,  oder  der  Weltfriede 

(1896). 
Carnegie:  League  of  Peace,  Pop.  Sci.  M.  68,  398-424. 
Independent,  66:  1087-8;  62:  512;  67:  430. 
Jeffrey:  How  to  Abolish  War:  Am.  Jour.  Pol.  Sci.  i :  492. 
Polymyer:  Observations  on  Compulsory  Arbitration. 
Photographic  History  of  the  Civil  War  (1911). 
Documents  Interparliamentaire,  No.  5.    La  limitation  convention- 

elle  des  armaments  et  I'arbitrage  international. 
D'Estournelles  de  Constant:  Woman  and  the  Cause  of  Peace. 

(Am.  Assoc,  for  Int.  Cone.  No.  40.) 
Colbron:  Women  and  War. 
Trueblood:  Women  in  the  Peace  Movement. 


l62  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Siittner:  Ground  Arms!  (1908). 

Richet:  Le  passe  de  la  guerre  at  I'avenir  de  la  paix  (1907). 
(English  translation  is  in  preparation.) 

Spargo:  Spiritual  Significance  of  Modern  Socialism  (1908). 

Gary:  Journalism  and  International  Affairs. 

Blymyer:  International  Arbitration  (1910). 

Bigelow :  The  Folly  of  Building  Temples  with  Untempered  Mor- 
tar.    [Against  tariffs.] 

Hirst:  The  Capture  and  Destruction  of  Commerce  at  Sea  and 
Taxation  and  Armaments    (Pamphlet,   1910). 

Nys :  The  Necessity  of  a  Permanent  Tribunal. 

Felix :  La  vie  des  mineraux,  la  plasmogenese  et  le  buomecanisme 
universel  (1911)    [Science  militates  against  war]. 

Feuerstein :  Sozialdemokratie  und  Weltgericht. 

Bollack:  La  monnaie  Internationale  {La  Revue,  June  15,  1911). 

Tryon :  A  World  Treaty  of  Arbitration. 

Novicow:  La  langue  Internationale  auxiliare  de  I'avenir  (1911). 

La  conciliation  et  le  systeme  metrique  (Gone.  Intern.). 

Koeben:  Der  aussichtsreichste  Schritt  zur  Beschrankung  der 
Seeriistungsausgaben  ( 1 9 1 1 ) . 

Messimy:  La  paix  armee.     La  France  pent  en  alleger  le  poids 

(1903)- 
Grane:  International  Disarmament  (1898-9). 
Eckstein :  The  World  Petition  to  Prevent  War  between  Nations 

(National  Brotherhood  Council). 
Mead,  Lucia :  Educational  Organizations  Promoting  International 

Friendship  (Pamphlet,  1911). 
Mann:  Import  and  Outlook  of  Socialism  (1911). 
de  la  Grasserie :  De  I'ensemble  des  moyens  de  la  solution  pacifiste 

(1904). 
Dumas:  La  colonisation.     Essai  de  doctrine  pacifiste  (1904). 
Moch :  Vers  la  federation  d'occident :  Desarmons  les  Alpes  (1905). 
Cattell :  Science  and  International  Good  Will.    Pop.  Set.  M.,  Apr. 

1912,  405-11. 


EDUCATION  FOR  PEACE  1 63 


XXXVI.     EDUCATION  FOR  PEACE. 

(Krehbiel) 

A.  Education   (study,  travel,  reading,  etc.),  if  at  all  impartial, 

has  a  tendency  to  remove  bias  and  prejudices  of  all  kinds. 
The  removal  of  international  and  inter-racial  prejudices  is 
a  proper  function  of  education. 

B.  Education  for  peace  should  begin  with  childhood  in  the  home 

and  the  schools.    Peace  Day,  May  i8. 
C  Education  may  aid  the  cause  of  peace  by — 

1.  Teaching  all  subjects  as  honestly  as  possible. 

2.  Admitting  the  part  played  by  other  peoples  in  civilization. 

3.  Discouraging  superficial  patriotism  of  the  noisy,  public 

sort,  which  stands  for  "my  country  right  or  wrong," 
and  encouraging  that  patriotism  which  desires  to  have 
one's  nation  be  right,  not  wrong. 
D.  Peace  ideals  may  be  inculcated  by  the  method  of  teaching,  or 
by  the  emphasis  placed  upon  special  subjects. 

1.  Literature. 

Guarding  against  the  romantic  element  in  literature,  to 
prevent  it  from  obscuring  the  truth  and  giving 
distorted  conceptions  of  courage,  heroism,  loyalty 
and  honor. 

2.  Commercial  geography.     Bringing  out  the  economic  in- 

terdependence and  unity  of  the  whole  earth. 

3.  Contemporary  politics. 

Showing  that  the  problems  of  all  civilized  nations  are 
similar. 

Noting  that  there  is  often  a  distinction  between  gov- 
ernment (the  men  who  control  the  government) 
and  the  state  (the  people). 

4.  Science.    Bringing  all  people  to  know  what  the  biological 

consequences  of  war  are.    Eugenics. 

5.  The  duty  of  the  present  to  posterity.    The  evils  of  deferred 

payments :  borrowing  on  the  future. 

6.  The  relation  of  brute  force  to  intellect  and  the  value  of 

deliberation    and   the    investigation    of    facts   before, 
rather  than  after,  a  war. 

7.  International  ethics.     Any  reflection  upon  this  theme  is 

likely  to  be  fruitful  for  peace. 

8.  Chairs  of  international  institutions  at  colleges  and  univer- 

sities. 

9.  Schools  of  peace ;  or  peace  courses. 


164  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

E.  History. 

1.  It  should  try  to  teach  the  truth.    The  truth  about  the  past 

will  deprive  war  of  much  glamor. 
The  truth  about  causes  of  war.     A  careful  distinction 
should  be  drawn  between — 
a.  The  immediate  cause  or  the  occasion  of  the  war 
(the  pretext). 
Chance  or  accidental  occasions. 
Artificially  prepared  occasions. 
War  slogans  and  their  role. 
h.  The  underlying  causes  of  war. 

The  truth  about  declarations  of  war.    These — 
Present  the  case  of  the  belligerent  as  favor- 
ably as  possible. 
Emphasize  the  immediate  occasion  of  the 

war  (the  pretext). 
Frequently  dissemble  the  true  cause  of  the 

war. 
Are  often  belied  by  subsequent  events. 
Illustrations. 
[Swift  on  the  causes  of  war:  Appendix  E.] 
The  truth  about  service  in  the  army  as  a  private. 
The  truth  about  the  fruits  of  war. 

The  frequent  failure  of  war  to  settle  or  improve  matter*. 
The  growth  of  law. 
The  spread  of  democracy. 
The  use  and  success  of  arbitration. 
The  achievements  of  the  Hague  Conferences. 

2.  Continuity  of  history  should  be  emphasized.     History  is 

genetic,  not  cataclysmic. 
Results  of  this  conception. 

There  is  growth  in  time  of  peace  as  well  as  in  war. 

War  is  not  the  motive  force  of  progress,  but  mere- 
ly the  clash  of  forces  resulting  from  progress. 

Progress  does  not  necessarily  mean  war,  as  ideas 
absolutely  subversive  of  accepted  beliefs  have 
made  their  way  without  bloodshed:     Darwinism. 

The  only  solid  progress  is  that  which  comes  from 
sound  growth ;  progress  forced  by  war  alone  is 
not  lasting. 

Progress  in  peace  versus  progress  in  war. 

3.  History  should  be  made  more  nearly  a   "biography  of 

man,"  instead  of  a  record  of  his  political  doings. 

Should  touch  all  sides  of  human  endeavor. 

Should  measure  the  success  or  expediency  of  any  pro- 
cedure in  terms  of  all  of  man's  interests,  instead 
of  merely  in  terms  of  political  consequences,  A 
step  which  has  good  political  consequences,  may 
be  bad  considered  from  an  economic,  social  or 
moral  point  of  view. 


education  for  peace  1 65 

United  States  History — The  War  of   1812, 


QUACKENBOS  ^ 

Holmes  ^  Montgomery  ^ 

Hart* 

Pages  in  book  .... 

458 

323 

365 

583 

Total  pages  to  war 
Percentage .... 

Pages  to  this  war. . 
Percentage .... 

Detailing  maneuvers 
Percentage. . . , 

Total      illustrations 

218 

47-6% 
44 

9-6% 
•   32/2 

7% 

123 

38% 
12 

Z-7% 
5/2 

1-7% 

145 

39-7% 

6 

1.6% 

5 

1-3% 

113 
19-3% 
8 

1-3% 
3 

.5% 

in  book 

Illustrations  to  this 

63 

87 

•82 

146 

war 

Percentage, . . . 
Total  maps  in  book 
Maps  for  this  war 

Percentage .... 

8 

12.7% 
42 
9 
21.4% 

5 

5-7% 
7 
I 

14-3% 

4 
4-9% 

5 
6.9% 

5 
3.4% 
56 

I 
1.8% 

^  Quackenbos :  Illustrated  School  History  of  the  United  States,  1861. 

2  Holmes :  Sheldon's  History  of  the  United  States,  1884. 

3  Montgomery  :  American  History,  1896. 

■*  Hart :  Essentials  in  American  History,  1905. 

Greek   History — Peloponnesian   War,  431-404  B.  C. 


Gillie  ^ 

Pin NOCK  ^ 

Oman  ^ 

MOREY  * 

Pages  in  book  .... 

Total  to  war    .... 

Percentage. . . . 

Pages  to  this  war.  . 

475 
216 

45-5% 
80 

384 
174 
45-3% 
52 

546 
319 
58.4% 
126 

353 

43K2 

12.370 
13 

Percentage. . , . 
Detailing  maneuvers 

16.8% 
19 

13-5% 
19 

23-1% 

48 

1-7% 
6 

Percentage .... 
Total      illustrations 

4% 

5% 

8.8% 

1-7% 

in  book  

Illustrations  to  this 

0 

32 

0 

97 

war   

0 

4 

0 

I 

Percentage. . . . 
Total  maps  in  book 
Maps  for  this  war 

Percentage. . . . 

I 
0 

12.5% 
2 
2 
100% 

12 

4 
33-3% 

1% 
40 

5 
12.5% 

1  Gillie :  History  of  Ancient  Greece,  1843. 

2  Pinnock  :  Goldsmith's  Greece,  1851. 

3  Oman :  History  of  Greece,  1895.     (Oman  is  a  writer  on  the  history  of 

war.) 
•*  ^lorey :  Outlines  of  Greek  History,  1903. 


l66  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

The  objection  of  time:  it  is  impossible  to  teach  all  sides 
of  history  in  the  time  allotted  to  the  subject. 
This  does  not  justify  teaching  what  is  untrue. 
If  anything  is  to  be  omitted  it  should  be  the  inter- 
esting rather  than  the  true.      (The  reverse  has 
been  too  common.) 
4.  Writers  of  texts  of  history  have  already  begun  to  reduce 
the  space  given  to  wars  and  to  increase  other  matter 
in  proportion. 

References 

Seve:  Cours  d'enseignement  pacifiste  (1910). 

Gordy:  Teaching  Peace  in  the  Schools  through  Instruction  in 
American  History  (Pamphlet). 

Larned:  Peace  Teaching  of  History.    Atlantic  M.,  loi :  114-121. 

Sturdee:  Teaching  of  History  on  War,  Westm.  Rev.,  158:  124-34. 

Report  of  a  Committee  of  Three  appointed  by  the  American 
Peace  Society:  The  Teaching  of  History  in  the  Public 
Schools  with  Reference  to  War  and  Peace  (1906). 

Passy:  L'education  pacifique.     (Pamphlet.) 

Shaler:  Natural  History  of  War,  Int.  Quar.  8,  17-30. 

Hale :  Creation  of  Public  Opinion,  Mohonk  Addresses,  86-94. 

Pollard :  Education  and  International  Duty. 

Hull:  Swarthmore  College  Bulletin,  31-36.  (37-47). 

Miiller:  Pacifistisches  Jugendbuch  (1911),  84. 

Mead:  Peace  Teaching  in  American  Schools  and  Colleges,  Out- 
look 83 :  376-382. 

Andrews:  Relation  of  Teachers  to  the  Peace  Movement,  Educ. 
Rev.,  28:  279-289. 

Hart:  School  Books  and  International  Prejudices.  (Am.  Assoc, 
for  Int.  Concil.     No.  38.) 

Chamberlain:  Patriotism  and  the  Moral  Law. 

Showerman:  Peace  and  the  Professor   (Pamphlet,  191 1). 

Delassus:  Precis  d'enseignement  pacifiste  (1910). 

Stevenson:  The  Teacher  as  a  Missionary  of  Peace  (Peace  Com- 
mittee, Philadelphia,  1909). 

Nattan-Laurier :  Les  menaces  des  guerres  futures  et  les  travaux 
de  Jean  de  Bloch  (1904). 

Mead,  Lucia:  Patriotism  and  Peace;  How  to  teach  them  in  the 
Schools. 

Edwards :  Suggestions  for  the  Teaching  of  Peace  Through  His- 
tory.   Journal  of  Education,  Jan.  1912. 

Robinson:  The  New  History  (1912). 

Andrews :  Peace  Day.  Suggestions  and  Material  for  its  Ob- 
servance in  the  Schools  (Bureau  of  Education,  1912). 


LIVING  WORKERS  FOR  PEACE  167 


XXXVII.     LIVING  WORKERS  FOR  PEACE. 

(Jordan) 

(See  Appendix  F  for  a  list  of  peace  workers  outside  of  the 
United  States.) 


APPENDIX 


Table  A. 

INTEREST-BEARING  DEBTS  OF  THE  SOVEREIGN  NATIONS. 
(Allen:  Drain  of  Armaments,  p.  19.) 


Great  Britain  and 
THE  Continent 
OF  Europe  : 


*Austria-Hungary 

Belgium    

Bulgaria 

Denmark    

France 

fGermany 

■Great   Britain    .  . . 

Greece    

Italy    

Netherlands 

Norway  , 

Portugal 

Rumania 

Russia 

Servia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland   

ITurkey 


Total,   Great  Britain 
and  the  Continent.  . 


United  States 
Japan  


Mexico  and  South 
America  : 

Argentine 

Brazil 

Chile  

Colombia    

Ecuador    

Mexico   

Peru    

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


Total,  Mexico  and 
South  America. 
World  Total 


Date 


Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Apr. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Apr. 

Jan. 

July 

Jan. 

July 

Jan. 

Apr 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Sep.  13, 


1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1910 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1909 
1912 
1910 
1911 
1910 
1911 
1911 
1911 
191 1 
1910 
1911 


July  I,  191 1 
Apr.  I,  1911 


Jan.  I,  191 1 
Jan.  I,  191 1 
Jan.  I,  191 1 
Jan.  I,  1911 
July  I,  1910 
July  I,  191 1 

1909 
Jan.  I,  1911 
Jan.   I,  191 1 


National  Debt 


$3,612,389,000 

740,681,000 

122,040,000 

90,682,000 

6,286,435,000 

1,224,158,000 

3-389,577.000 

155,823,000 

2,614,183,000 

465,295,000 

86,386,000 

818,578,000 

315,966,000 

4,507,071,000 

135,886,000 

1,886,221,000 

145,105,000 

24,360,000 

508,981,000 


$27,129,817,000 


$  915,353,000 
1,325,198,000 


$531,858,000 

654,303,000 

175,000,000 

16,622,000 

22,000,000 

,219,537,000 

8,400,000 

134,229,000 

39,300,000 


$1,801,249,000 
$31,171,617,000 


Approximate 

Annual 

Interest  Charge 


$144,496,000 

21,249,000 

5,992,000 

2,545,000 

192,762,000 

41,981,000 

101,060,000 

6,233,000 

92,145,000 

12,886,000 

3,024,000 

28,650,000 

12,639,000 

180,283,000 

6,115,000 

75,448,000 

5,079,000 

853,000 

20,359,000 

$953,799,000 

$21,311,000 
59,312,000 


$26,593,000 

32,715,000 

8,750,000 

831,000 

1,100,000 

10,977,000 

462,000 

6,711,000 

1,179,000 


),3i8,ooo 
)i, 1 23,740,000 


*  Austrian  Empire,  Austria  proper,  and  Hungary  proper,  combined. 
Since   1867  no  loans  have  been  contracted  by  the  Empire. 

t  German  Empire  only.  Prussia  alone  has  a  separate  debt  of  nearly 
$2,400,000,000.  :j:  Report  of  Sir  Adam  Block,   191 1. 


Table  B. 

THE  WORLD'S  ANNUAL  ARMAMENT  BILL. 
(Allen:  Drain  of  Armaments,  p.  lo.) 


Great  Britain  and 
Continent  of 
Europe  ; 

Fiscal 
'    Year 

Expended 
for  Army 

Expended 
for  Navy 

Total  Military 
Charge 

Austria-Hungary 

Belgium    

Bulgaria    

Denmark   

France   

Germany    

Great  Britain   . . 

Greece    

Italy  

Montenegro    . . . 
Netherlands    . . . 

Norway   

Portugal    

Rumania    

Russia    

Servia    

Spain    

1911 

1911 

1911 

1911-12 

1911 

191I-12 

1910-II 

191I 

1911-12 

1911 

1912 

1910-II 

191O-II 

1911-12 

1911 

1911 

1911 

T912 

[911 

1911-12 

1910-II 
1911-12 
1910-II 

191 1 

191I 

191O 

191I 

1909 

1911-I2 

1910 

1910 

191O-II 

$73,513,000 

11,987,000 

7,928,000 

6,053,000 

*  1 87,632,000 

203,938,000 

138,800,000 

4,262,000 

fSi, 033,000 

38,000 

12,120,000 

3,798,000 

8,592,000 

13,856,000 

265,642,000 

5,402,000 

37,671,000 

15,314,000 

8,785,000 

42,071,000 

$1,128,435,000 

$13,731,000 

3,044,000 

83,286,000 

114,508,000 

203,020,000 

1,703,000 

39,643,000 

8,146,000 
1 ,460,000 
3,997,000 

54,128,000 

13,696,000 
7,251,000 

6,223,000 

$87,244,000 

11,987,000 

7,928,000 

9,097,000 

270,918,000 

318,446,000 

341,820,000 

5,965,000 

120,676,000 

38,000 

20,266,000 

5,258,000 

12,589,000 

13,856,000 

319,770,000 

5,402,000 

51,367,000 

22,565,000 

8,785,000 

48,294,000 

Sweden    

Switzerland  .... 
Turkey    

Total   (Gt.  Britain 
and  Continent) 

$553,836,000 

$120,729,000 
43,405,000 

$1,682,271,000 

United  States  . . 

Japan 

British  India  .  . . 

$162,357,000 

49,196,000 
100,099,000 

$283,086,000 

92,601.000 

100,099,000 

Mexico  AND  South 
America: 

Argentina    

Brazil 

Chile    

$10,583,000 

24,520,000 

9,852,000 

*.        Army  and 
j     not  differen 

1 
J 

$8,236,000 

20,431,000 

7,653,000 

Navy 
tiated 

$18,819,000 

44,951,000 

17,505,000 

1 ,900,000 

1,500,000 

10,700,000 

5,400,000 

3,000,000 

1,500,000 

Colombia 

Ecuador    

Mexico    

Peru 

Uruguay    

Venezuela    

Total  (Mexico  and 
South  America) 

— 

$105,275,000 

World  Total   $2,263,332,000 


*  Including    gendarmes. 


t  Including    carabinieri. 


APPENDIX  171 


Table  C. 

EXPENDITURE    OF    THE    PUBLIC    MONEY    IN    THE 

UNITED   STATES. 

(From  the  Boston  Advertiser.) 

Military  Civil 

1899 $201,514,673 $17,371,779 

1900 110,175,389 20,767,628 

1901 120,070,834 21,009,985 

1902 93,974,727 16,097,725 

1903 91,591.533 25,890,167 

1904 89,010,039 24,752,916 

1905 94,119.947 25,317,532 

1906 85,962,396 26,693,955 

1907 93-525,946 26,040,132 

1908 100,431,384 31,293,690 

1909 118,204,788 35,691,467 

1910 118,953,603 29,740,612 

1911 116,741,705 34,558,960 

In  round  numbers  since  the  Spanish  War  the  War  Depart- 
ment has  spent  more  than  $1,500,000,000,  while  the  operation  of 
the  civil  government  has  cost  only  about  $350,000,000. 


172  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


D.     LIMITATION  OF  NAVAL  ARMAMENTS, 

ARGENTINE-CHILE. 

[May  28,  1902;  ratified  September  22,  1902.] 

(British  and  Foreign  State  Papers,  95,  759.) 

Art.  I.  With  the  view  of  removing  all  motive  for  uneasiness 
or  resentment  in  either  country,  the  Governments  of  the  Argentine 
Republic  and  of  Chile  desist  from  acquiring  the  vessels  of  war 
which  they  have  in  construction,  and  from  henceforth  making 
new  acquisitions.  Both  Governments  agree,  moreover,  to  reduce 
their  respective  fleets,  for  which  object  they  will  continue  to  exert 
themselves  until  they  arrive  at  an  understanding  which  shall  es- 
tablish a  just  balance  (of  strength)  between  the  said  fleets. 

This  reduction  shall  take  place  within  one  year,  counting  from 
the  date  of  exchange  of  ratifications  of  the  present  Convention. 

Art.  2.  The  two  Governments  bind  themselves  not  to  in- 
crease, without  previous  notice,  their  naval  armaments  during  five 
years;  the  one  intending  to  increase  them  shall  give  the  other 
eighteen  months'  notice.  It  is  understood  that  all  armaments 
for  the  fortification  of  the  coasts  and  ports  are  excluded  from  this 
Agreement,  and  any  floating  machines  destined  exclusively  for  the 
defence  of  these,  such  as  submarines,  etc.,  can  be  acquired. 

Art.  3.  The  two  Contracting  Parties  shall  not  be  at  liberty 
to  part  with  any  vessels,  in  consequence  of  this  Convention,  in 
favor  of  countries  having  questions  pending  with  one  or  the  other. 

Art.  4.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  transfer  of  pending  con- 
tracts, both  Governments  bind  themselves  to  prolong  for  two 
months  the  term  stipulated  for  the  delivery  of  the  vessels  in  con- 
struction, for  which  purpose  they  will  give  the  necessary  instruc- 
tions immediately  this  Convention  has  been  signed. 

The  Limitation  of  Armaments  by  Treaty  between 

Argentine  a^d  Chile. 

[January  9,  1903.] 

(British  and  Foreign  State  Papers,  96,  311-312.) 

Art.  I.  The  Argentine  Republic  and  the  Republic  of  Chile 
shall  hereafter,  and  in  the  shortest  time  possible,  sell  the  vessels 
of  war  now  building  for  them.  ...  In  the  event  of  its  not  being 
possible  from  any  cause  to  carry  out  the  sale  immediately,  the 
High  Contracting  Parties  may  continue  the  building  of  the  said 


APPENDIX  173 

ships,  until  they  are  completed,  but  in  no  case  shall  they  be  added 
to  the  respective  fleets — not  even  with  the  previous  notice  of 
eighteen  months  required  for  the  increase  by  the  Agreement  of 
May  28th,  1902. 

Art.  2.  Both  the  High  Contracting  Parties  mutually  agree 
immediately  to  put  the  vessels  at  present  building  at  the  disposal 
and  at  the  orders  of  His  Brittanic  Majesty,  informing  him  that 
they  have  agreed  that  the  vessels  shall  not  leave  the  yards  where 
they  actually  are  except  only  in  case  Both  High  Parties  formally 
request  it,  either  because  their  sale  has  been  eflfected  or  in  virtue 
of  a  subsequent  agreement. 

Art.  3.  The  Two  High  Contracting  Parties  shall  immedi- 
ately communicate  to  the  ship-builders  the  fact  that  the  vessels 
have  been  placed,  by  common  consent  of  both  Governments,  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Arbitrator  designated  in  the  Treaty  of  May 
28th,  1902,  without  whose  express  order  they  may  not  be  delivered 
to  any  nation  or  individual. 

Art.  4.  In  order  to  establish  the  just  balance  between  the  two 
fleets,  the  Republic  of  Chile  shall  proceed  to  disarm  the  battleship 
"Capitan  Prat,"  and  the  Argentine  Republic  to  disarm  its  battle- 
ships "Garibaldi"  and  "Pueyrredon." 

Art.  5.  In  order  that  the  vessels  may  be  considered  dis- 
armed, in  accordance  with  the  foregoing  Article,  they  must  be 
moored  in  a  basin  or  port,  having  on  board  only  the  necessary 
crew  to  attend  to  the  preservation  of  the  material  which  cannot 
be  removed,  and  they  must  have  landed : 

All  coal ;  all  powder  and  ammunition ;  artillery  of  small 
calibre ;  torpedo  tubes  and  torpedos  ;  electric  search-lights ; 
boats  ;  all  stores  of  whatever  kind.  For  their  better  preser- 
vation it  is  permissible  to  roof  in  the  decks. 

Art.  6.  The  vessels  mentioned  in  Article  4,  which  both 
Governments  agree  to  disarm,  shall  remain  in  that  state,  and  may 
not  be  rearmed  without  the  previous  notice  of  eighteen  months 
which  the  Government  who  wishes  to  do  so  is  obliged  to  give  to 
the  other  Government,  except  in  case  of  a  subsequent  agreement 
or  of  their  alienation. 

Art.  7.    Both  Governments  shall  request  the  Arbitrator 

to  accept  the  duties  resulting  from  the  present  Agreement,  for 
which  purpose  an  authenticated  copy  thereof  shall  be  sent  to  him. 


174  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


E.    THE  CAUSES  OF  WAR. 

"He  asked  me  'What  were  the  usual  causes  or  motives  that 
made  one  country  go  to  war  with  another?'  I  answered  they 
were  innumerable,  but  I  should  only  mention  a  few  of  the  chief. 
Sometimes  the  ambition  of  princes,  who  never  think  they  have 
land  or  people  enough  to  govern;  sometimes  the  corruption  of 
ministers,  who  engage  their  masters  in  a  war,  in  order  to  stifle 
or  divert  the  clamor  of  the  subjects  against  their  evil  adminis- 
tration. Difference  in  opinions  has  cost  many  millions  of  lives ; 
for  instance,  whether  flesh  be  bread,  or  bread  be  flesh ;  whethei 
the  juice  of  a  certain  berry  be  blood  or  wine ;  whether  whistling 
be  a  vice  or  a  virtue ;  whether  it  be  better  to  kiss  a  post,  or  throw 
it  into  the  fire;  what  is  the  best  color  for  a  coat,  whether  black, 
white,  red,  or  gray;  and  whether  it  should  be  long  or  short, 
narrow  or  wide,  dirty  or  clean ; — with  many  more.  Neither  are 
any  wars  so  furious  and  bloody,  or  of  so  long  continuance,  as  those 
occasioned  by  difference  of  opinion,  especially  if  it  be  in  things 
indifferent. 

"Sometimes  the  quarrel  between  two  princes  is  to  decide 
which  of  them  shall  dispossess  a  third  of  his  dominions,  where 
neither  of  them  pretends  to  any  right;  sometimes  one  prince 
quarrels  with  another,  for  fear  the  other  should  quarrel  with  him ; 
sometimes  a  war  is  entered  upon  because  the  enemy  is  too  strong, 
and  sometimes  because  he  is  too  weak;  sometimes  our  neighbors 
want  the  things  which  we  have,  or  have  the  things  which  we  want, 
and  we  both  fight  till  they  have  ours  or  give  us  theirs.  .  .  .  Alli- 
ance by  blood  or  marriage  is  a  frequent  cause  of  war  between 
princes ;  and  the  nearer  the  kindred  is,  the  greater  their  disposi- 
tion to  quarrel.  Poor  nations  are  hungry,  and  rich  nations  are 
proud ;  and  pride  and  hunger  will  ever  be  at  variance.  For  these 
reasons  the  trade  of  a  soldier  is  held  the  most  honorable  of  all 
others,  because  a  soldier  is  a  Yahoo  hired  to  kill  in  cold  blood  as 
many  of  his  own  species,  who  have  never  offended  him,  as 
possibly  he  can." 

(Dean  Swift:  Voyage  to  the  Land  of  the  Houyhnhnms.) 


APPENDIX  175 


F.     LEADING  WORKERS  FOR  PEACE. 
(Outside  of  the  United  States) 

Albert  I,  Prince  of  Monaco. 

J.  G.  Alexander :  3  Mayfield  Road,  Tunbridge  Wells,  Kent. 

"Norman  Angell"  (Ralph  Lane)  :  36  Rue  du  Sentier,  Paris. 

Diana  Agaby  Apcar:  Bluff,  Yokohama. 

Count  Albert  Apponyi :  Budapest,  Hungary. 

Emile  Arnaud:  Luzarches,  Seine-et-Oise,  France. 

Judge  Asser :  Holland. 

Lord  Avebury  (John  Lubbock)  :  48  Grosvenor  St.,  London. 

J.  Allen  Baker:  Donnington  Road,  Harlesden,  London. 

Judge  Beckman :  Stockholm. 

Judge  Bernaart:  Ministre  d'fitat,  Brussels. 

Leon  BoUack:  147  Avenue  Malakofif,  Paris. 

Prof.  Bonet-Maury:   (Prof.  Theology,  Sorbonne),  Paris. 

Leon  Bourgeois :  Paris,  France.    Minister  of  Labor. 

G.  Bovet:  Berne. 

Gilbert  Bowles :  30  Kounmachi  Mita,  Tokyo. 

Edward  G.  Browne:  (Prof.  Arabic),  University  of  Cambridge. 

Ferdinand  Buisson :  late  Ministre  d'lnstruction  Publique,  38  Rue 

Bouillot,  Paris. 
James  Bryce :  British  Embassy,  Washington. 
Sir  John  Brunner :  Silverlands,  Chertsey,  Surrey. 
Rev.  Reginald  J.  Campbell:  London. 
Sir  William  J.  Collins :  i  Albert  Terrace,  Regents  Park,  London. 

N.  W.     (Prof.  Surgery,  University  of  London.) 
Lord  Courtney  of  Penwith :  i  ^  Cheyne  Walk,  Chelsea,  London, 

S.  W. 
W.  Evans  Darby:  London  Peace  Society. 
Prince  Paul  Dolgouroff:  Moscow,  Russia. 
Judge  Drago:  Buenos  Ayres,  Argentina. 
Jacques  Dumas:  5  bis  Rue  de  Beauvan,  Versailles   (Editor  La 

Paix  par  le  Droit). 
Anna  M.  Eckstein :  Coburg,  Germany. 
P.  H.  Eijkman :  The  Hague,  Holland. 
Havelock  Ellis :  London. 
Baron  Paul  D'Estournelles  de  Constant :  Chateau  de  Creans,  near 

La  Fleche,  Sarthe,  France. 
C.  Reginald  Ford:  Christchurch,  N.  Z. 
Wilhelm    Forster:    Ahorn   Allee   32,    Westend,    Charlottenburg, 

Prussia  (Prof.  Astronomy,  University  of  Berlin). 


176  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

Alfred  H.  Fried:  Widerhofergasse  5,  Vienna  (Editor  of  Fried- 
enswarte). 

Prof.  R.  Fujisawa:  Imperial  University  of  Tokyo. 

Yasanosuke  Fukukita:  American  Embassy,  Tokyo. 

A.  Gobat :  Berne,  Switzerland. 

Patrick  Geddes:  University  of  Edinburgh  (Prof.  Biology). 

John  W.  Graham:  University  of  Manchester. 

Joseph  Frederick  Green :  40  Outer  Temple,  London. 

Sir  Edward  Grey:  Foreign  Minister,  London. 

Count  A.  de  Gubernatis :  Via  Lucrezia  Caro,  6,  Rome. 

Prof.  Ernest  Hseckel:  Jena.     (Prof,  of  Zoology.) 

Lord  Haldane :  Minister  of  War,  London. 

Carl  Heath:  167  St.  Stephen's  House,  Thames  Embankment, 
Westminster,  London,  W.     (Editor  Peace  Year  Book). 

John  A.  Hobson:  Elmstead,  Limpsfield,  Surrey.  (Editorial 
writer  of  Manchester  Guardian.) 

Francis  W.  Hirst:  Arundel  St.,  Strand.  (Editor  of  The  Econ- 
omist.) 

J.  Keir  Hardie,  M.  P. :  London. 

Merriman  C.  Harris :  Bishop,  Seoul,  Korea. 

T.  Harada:  Pres.  Doshisha  College,  Kyoto. 

Silvester  Home:  Whitefield's  Church,  Tottenham  Court  Road, 
London. 

Chiyomatsu  Ishikawa:  (Prof.  Zoology)  Imperial  University, 
Tokyo. 

Eikichi  Kamada :  Pres.  Keio  University,  Tokyo. 

Rev.  N.  Kato:  Osaka. 

Baron  Dairoku  Kikuchi :  (Pres.  Imperial  University)  Tokyo. 

Mirza  Ali  Kuli  Khan :  Persian  Legation,  Washington. 

Half  dan  Koht:  University  of  Christiania.     (Prof,  of  History.) 

Maxime  Kovalewsky:  St.  Petersburg. 

Prince  Krapotkin:  St.  Petersburg. 

Toshiyasu  Kuma:  Secretary,  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Tokyo. 

Henri  La  Fontaine:  11  Square  Vergote,  Brussels.  Ed.  Vie  In- 
ternationale.) 

H.  Lamprecht:  (Prof.  History,  University  of  Leipzig). 

Ralph  Lane:  36  Rue  Sentier,  Paris.  "Norman  Angell."  (Editor 
Daily  Mail.) 

Christian  F.  Lange:  377  Avenue  de  Longchamps,  Brussels,  Bel- 
gium.     (Secretary  of  Interparliamentary  Union.) 

Lucien  Le  Foyer:  43  Faubourg  St.  Honore.  Paris. 

Dr.  Magelhaes  Lima:  Lisbon,  Portugal. 

Oliveiro  Lima:  Rio  Janeiro.     (Minister  to  Belgium.) 

David  Lloyd-George:  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  London. 

Dr.  James  A.  Macdonald :  The  Globe.  Toronto,  Canada. 

J.  Ramsey  Macdonald,  M.   P. :   London. 


APPENDIX  \77 

Frederick  Maddison :  St.  Stephen's  House,  Thames  Embankment, 

Westminster,  London. 
H.    W.    Massingham:    Henrietta   St.,   Covent   Garden,   London. 

(Editor,  Nation.) 
Sir   WilHam    Mather:    Bramble    Hill    Lodge,    Bramshaw,    New 

Forest,  London. 
Charles  Edward  Maurice:  Gainsborough  Gardens,  Hempstead. 
Gaston  Moch :  26  Rue  de  Chartres,  Neuilly-sur-Seine,  Paris. 
Ernesto  T.  Moneta:  Milan. 

Felix  Moscheles :  80  Elm  Park  Road,  Chelsea,  London,  S.  W. 
Ginzo  Muki :  Prof.  German,  Keio  University,  Tokyo. 
Jinzo  Naruse:  Pres.  Women's  College,  Tokyo. 
Thomas  P.  Newman:  Hazelhurst,  Haslemere,  Surrey. 
Professor  Nippold:   Frankfurt-a-Main. 

Inazo  Nitobe :  Imperial  University,  Tokyo.    (Prof.  Literature.) 
Jacques  Novicow:  8  Rue  Toukofsky,  Odessa,  Russia.      (Prof. 

Social  Science.) 
Dr.  Robert  Oehme:  Urbanstrasse,  Berlin. 
Count  Okuma:  Pres.  Waseda  University,  Tokyo.     (Pres.  Japan 

Peace  Society.) 
Wilhelm  Ostwald:  (Prof.  Chemistry,  Univ.  of  Leipzig). 
Paul  Otlet:  11  Square  Vergote,  Brussels. 

Frederick  Passy :  8  Rue  de  Labordere,  Neuilly-sur-Seine,  Paris. 
George  H.  Perris :  5  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London. 
Jules  Prudhommeaux :  Nimes,  France. 
Prof.  Ludwig  Quidde :  Munich. 
William  Pember  Reeves :  London  School  of  Political  Economy, 

Clare  Market,  London,  England. 
Timothy  Richard :  Shanghai. 
Charles  Richet:   (Prof.  Physiology,  Univ.  of  Paris)    15  Rue  de 

I'LTniversite,  Paris. 
Adolph  Richter :  Pforzheim,  Baden. 
Dr.  J.  A.  Riviere:  25  Rue  des  Mathurins.     (Pres.  Societe  des 

Medicins  centre  la  Guerre.) 
Professor  Rossignol :  Brussels. 

Theodore  Ruyssen:  (Prof.  Theology)  Univ.  of  Bordeaux. 
Baron  Sakatani :  Tokyo. 

Wilhelm  Schallmeyer,  M.  D. :  Krailing-PIanegg,  Munich,  Bavaria. 
David  B.  Schneder:  Sendai,  Japan.     (Pres.  N.  Japan  College.) 
Olive  Schreiner :  Cape  Town,  Africa. 
Theodor  Schiicking:  Univ.  of  Marburg,  Germany. 
Otto  Seeck:  Gertrudenstrasse,  43,  Miinster  in  Westfalen.     (Pro- 
fessor of  Ancient  History.) 
A.  Seve:  16  Rue  Soufiflot,  Paris. 
Saburo  Shimada:  M.  P.,  Tokyo. 
Friedrich  Spielhagen :  Berlin.. 


178  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 

William  T.  Stead:  (ti9i2). 

Sir  Robert  Stout :  Wellington,  N.  Z. 

Albert  Seddekum :  Reichstag,  Berlin. 

Bertha  von  Siittner:  Zedlitzgasse  7,  Vienna  (Author  of  "Waffen 

Nieder"). 
Carmen  Silva:  Queen  of  Roumania,  Bucharest. 
T.  Fisher  Unwin:  i  Adelphi  Terrace,  London,  W.  C. 
Sir  Francis  Vane:  (World  Scouts)  London. 
Walter  Walsh:  Gilfillan  Church,  Dundee,  Scotland. 
T.  Watase:  Konoen  Kami  Shibuya,  Tokyo. 
Lord  Weardale:  Weardale  Manor,  Brasted  Chart,  Seven  Oaks, 

Surrey,  England.     (Philip  Stanhope.) 
Tatsuo  Yamamoto :  Minister  of  Finance,  Tokyo. 
Robert  Young:  Editor  Chronicle,  Kobe,  Japan. 

References 

Peace  Year-Book,  appendix. 

(A  "Who's  Who"  in  the  Peace  movement  is  in  preparation.) 


4 

APPENDIX  179 


G.    CONSTITUTIONAL   PROVISIONS    FOR 
ARBITRATION. 

Brazil.     Constitution  of  1891,  Art.  34,  Sec.  11   (Dodd:  Modern 
Constitutions,  I,  158). 
"The  national  congress  shall  have  exclusive  power :  to  au- 
thorize the  government  to  declare  war,-  when  arbitra- 
tion has   failed  or  cannot  take  place,  and  to  make 
peace." 
Venezuela.    Constitution  of  1904,  Art.  120  (Larned:  History  for 
Ready  Reference,  VII,  686). 
This  article  provides  that  all  international  treaties  shall  con- 
tain the  clause :  "All  differences  between  the  contract- 
ing parties   shall  be   decided  by  arbitration   without 
going  to  war." 


H.    PEACE  PERIODICALS. 

The  Peace  Movement  (Berne). 

The  Arbitrator   (London). 

Concord  (London). 

Advocate  of  Peace   (Washington). 

The  Messenger  of  Peace  (Richmond). 

Peace  and  Goodwill   (Wisbech). 

The  Cosmopolitan  Student(  Madison). 

The  Herald  of  Peace  (London). 

Friedens-warte  (Berlin,  Vienna,  Leipzig). 

Volkerfriede  (formerly  Friedensblatter).     (Esslingeii.) 

La  Paix  par  Le  Droit  (Paris). 

Etats-Unis  d'Europe  (Berne). 

La  Paix  (Geneva). 

Revue  de  La  Paix  (Paris). 

La  Vita  Internazionale  (Milan), 

Vrede   door   Recht    (Hague). 

Fredsbladet  ( Copenhagen ) . 

Fredsfanan   (Stockholm). 

Fredstidende   ( Copenhagen ) . 

Wainmoinen   (Tampere,  Finland). 

See  La  Fontaine:  Bibliographic,  p.  I28f.) 


% 

l8o  LECTURES  ON  INTERNATIONAL  CONCILIATION 


I.    PAMPHLETS. 

Various  peace  organizations  publish  pamphlets  from  time  to 
time ;  among  them  the  publications  of  the  following  will  have  the 
greatest  interest  for  English  readers. 

World  Peace  Foundation,  29a  Beacon  Street,  Boston. 

American  Association  for  International  Conciliation,  Sub- 
station 84,  New  York. 

American  Society  for  Judicial  Settlement  of  International 
Disputes,  Baltimore. 

American  Peace  Society:  Washington. 


J.     FICTION,  AND  THE  LIKE. 

Siittner,  Bertha  von:  Ground  Arms!     (Lay  Down  Your  Arms.) 

(1908.) 
Tolstoi:  War  and  Peace  (1889). 
Zola:  The  Downfall  (1898). 
Andreief:  The  Red  Laugh. 
Tolstoi:  Sevastopol  (1888.) 
Wiegand  and  Schauerman:  The  Wages  of  War.     Poet  Lore 

(1908). 
Comfort:  Routledge  Rides  Alone. 
Ular,  A. :  Die  Zwergenschlacht. 
Richet:  Fables  et  Recits  Pacifiques  (1904). 
Zangwill:  The  War  God  (1911). 
Suttner:  Souvenirs  de  Guerre  (1904). 
Severine  [Guebhard,  Mme.]  :  A.  Sainte-Helene  (1904). 
Stefane-Pol   [Coutant,  Paul]  :  Vers  L'Avenir. 
The  same:  Les  Deux  Evangiles  (1903). 
The  same:  L'Esprit  Militaire  (1904). 
Erckmann-Chatrain :  The  Conscript. 
Decle:   Trooper  3809. 

Schreiner,  Olive:  Trooper  Peter  Halket  of  Mashonaland. 
Buchanan :  The  Shadow  of  the  Sword. 
Crane:  The  Red  Badge  of  Courage. 
Sturge:  The  Patriot. 
Wells :  In  the  Days  of  the  Comet. 
Crosby:  Captain  Jinks,  Hero. 
Gribble:  The  Dream  of  Peace. 


^i-^^  c. 


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